Chapter 15 Blaine Robison, M.A.Published 20 May 2025 (in progress)
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Scripture Text: The Scripture text used in this commentary is prepared by Blaine Robison and based on the Nestle-Aland Greek New Testament. The essentially literal translation seeks to reflect the Jewish character of the author and writing. Scripture quotations may be taken from different Bible versions. Click here for Abbreviations of Bible Versions. Quotations marked with the initials "BR" indicate the translation of the commentary author. Sources: Bibliographic data for works cited may be found at the end of the chapter commentary. Works without page numbers are cited ad loc. Important early Jewish sources include the following: ● DSS: the Dead Sea Scrolls, a collection of Jewish manuscripts of Scripture and sectarian documents found in the Qumran caves. Most of the Qumran MSS belong to the last three centuries B.C. and the first century A.D. Online: DSS Bible; Vermes. ● LXX: The abbreviation "LXX" ("70") stands for the Septuagint, the Jewish translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, in use among Jews by the mid-2nd century B.C. Online. The LXX also included the Apocrypha, Jewish works produced from 400 B.C. to A.D. 1. Online. ● Josephus: The Works of Flavius Josephus (c. 75–99 A.D.), Jewish historian, trans. William Whiston (1737). Online. ● Philo: Works by Philo of Alexandria, the Jewish philosopher (20 B.C.─A.D. 50), consisting of 45 monographs. Online. ● Targums: Aramaic translation of Hebrew Scripture with commentary: Targum Onkelos (A.D. 80-120), and Targum Jonathan (A.D. 150-250). Index of Targum texts. ● Talmud: References to the Talmud are from the Soncino Babylonian Talmud (1948); found at Halakhah.com. The Talmud incorporates the Mishnah, Jewish laws (A.D. 180-220) and the Gemara, legal analysis (A.D. 220-500). Click here for Talmud Abbreviations. Syntax: Unless otherwise noted definition of Greek words is from F.W. Danker, The Concise Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament (2009), and definition of Hebrew words is from The New Brown, Driver, Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon (1981), abbreviated as "BDB." See the Greek Guide for the meaning of grammar abbreviations. Special Terms: In order to emphasize the Hebrew and Jewish nature of Scripture I use the terms Yeshua (Jesus), Messiah (Christ), ADONAI (for YHVH), Torah (Pentateuch, Law), Tanakh (Old Testament), and Besekh (New Testament).
Part Three: The Mission of the Messiah (9:51−19:27) Chapter Summary Chapter 15 continues the narrative of Luke that is independent of the other apostolic narratives. The chapter begins by noting that "tax collectors and sinners" were coming to hear Yeshua, at which the Pharisees and scribes took offense. How could a righteous man associate with unrighteous people? Scandal!! Yeshua vindicates his conduct in receiving the social outcasts by telling three parables of recovery and restoration. Indeed the three parables provide the complete content of this chapter. Chapter Outline Complaint Against Yeshua, 15:1-2 The Lost Sheep, 15:3-7 The Lost Coin, 15:8-10 The Prodigal Son, 15:11-19 The Compassionate Father, 15:20-24 The Proud Son, 15:25-30 The Celebrant Father, 15:31-32 Winter (Jan.−Feb.), A.D. 30 Setting: The association with "tax collectors and sinners" and the presence of "Pharisees and scribes" together suggest a location in Judea. Based on the assumption that 14:25 depicts Yeshua traveling to Bethany of Judea with the goal of resurrecting Lazarus (Santala 121), this chapter probably represents Yeshua's ministry in Bethany following that miracle. Parables of Recovery and Restoration. The three parables that provide the complete content of this chapter are part of Luke's narrative not found in the other apostolic narratives. Even though the basic premise of the first parable is found in Matthew there it is addressed to a different audience with a completely different application. Christian commentators generally ignore the Jewish context and audience and allegorize the parables, some taking a Trinitarian approach: In the first parable the shepherd represents the Son of God, in the second the woman symbolizes the Holy Spirit and in the third the father characterizes God the Father. Another approach is to focus on the one lost. Farrar says, "In these three parables we have pictures of the bewildered sinner (Luke 15:3-7); the unconscious sinner (Luke 15:8-10); and the voluntary sinner (Luke 15:11-32)." With the Jewish context the first two parables might be viewed as emphasizing the spiritual condition of the "tax collectors and sinners," as well as the prodigal son, whereas the third parable might be viewed as providing both social commentary and insightful criticism of the "Pharisees and scribes," based on the attitude of the elder brother. However, Yeshua employs the distinctive method of Jewish teaching to communicate a specific message. Let us consider carefully his instruction. Complaint Against Yeshua, 15:1-2 1 Now all the tax collectors and the sinners were coming near him to hear him. Now: Grk. de, conj. used to indicate (1) a contrast to something preceding, "but;" (2) a transition in subject matter, "now, then;" or (3) a connective to continue a thought, "and, also," sometimes with emphasis, "indeed," "moreover" (Thayer). The second usage applies here. all: pl. of Grk. pas, adj., comprehensive in scope, but without statistical emphasis; all, every. The adjective points to the immediate geographical area, not the entire country. the tax collectors: pl. of Grk. ho telōnēs, a collector of taxes or other revenues (customs and tolls) from Jews on behalf of the Roman government. The noun occurs 21 times in the Besekh, all in the Synoptic Narratives, of which 10 occur in Luke. Jewish tax collectors were independent contractors, not civil servants, and earned their income from fees charged to individual taxpayers for banking services. The tax collectors were considered sinners merely because they served the Roman government, not because of any lack of integrity. For the background on tax collection in the land of Israel in the time of Yeshua see the note here. and: Grk. kai, conj. that marks a connection or addition of words or numbers ('and, also'), as well as the introduction of clauses or sentences, sometimes with emphasis ('certainly, even, indeed, namely'). See my note on the significance of conjunctions in the Besekh. the sinners: pl. of Grk. ho hamartōlos, one who fails to meet religious or legal standards; sinful, sinner. In the LXX hamartōlos occurs frequently and translates Heb. chatta, evildoer, sinful, sinner, someone who willfully violated God's commandments. The term is first used of the men of Sodom (Gen 13:13), and then of Israelites that rebelled against God and Moses and condemned to perish in the wilderness (Num 16:38; 32:14; cf. Deut 29:18-20). The term "sinner" also implies habitual practice (Ps 1:1; 51:13). Among Pharisees the "sinner" label had a much broader application. Any repetitive behavior that violated customs or traditions they valued could warrant the label. The Pharisees labeled Yeshua a sinner because he healed on the Sabbath (John 9:16). The label was also attributed out of elitist contempt Pharisees had toward the common people for not satisfying their perfectionist demands (cf. Matt 9:36; John 7:49). The combination of "tax collectors and sinners" occurs seven times in the Synoptic Narratives (see Luke 5:30; 7:34). The previous mentions of the two groups with Yeshua were in the context of sharing a meal and Luke notes their redemptive response to the ministry of Yochanan the Immerser (Luke 7:29). were: Grk. eimi, impf., 3p-pl., a function word used in a wide variety of grammatical constructions, primarily to declare a state of existence, whether in the past ('was, were'), present ('are, is') or future ('will be'), often to unite a subject and predicate. coming near: Grk. eggizō, pl. pres. mid. part., come or draw near, approach. The verb depicts not just physical proximity, but a personal motivation to associate. him: Grk. autos, an intensive personal pronoun, often used to distinguish a person or thing in contrast to another, or to give him/her/it prominence. The pronoun may mean (1) self, (2) he, she, it, or (3) the same. The second meaning applies here in reference to Yeshua. to hear: Grk. akouō, pres. inf., to hear aurally or listen, with the focus on willingness to listen or to heed the substance of what is said. him: Grk. autos. The presence of both tax collectors and sinners where Yeshua was teaching suggests a location in Judea. 2 and both the Pharisees and the scribes were grumbling, saying that, "This man receives sinners and eats with them." and: Grk. kai, conj. both: Grk. te, conj. used to connect an idea closely to another, used here in combination with kai that follows; also, likewise, both, at the same time. the Pharisees: pl. of Grk. ho Pharisaios, a rough transliteration of Heb. P'rushim, meaning "separatists." Their theology and pietistic code of conduct provided the basis for Orthodox Judaism. For more information on the Pharisees see my comment on Luke 5:17. and: Grk. kai. the scribes: pl. of Grk. ho grammateus refers to a legal specialist. In the Tanakh scribes were officials who served as secretaries to kings (2Sam 8:17; 1Kgs 4:3; 2Kgs 18:18; Esth 3:12; 8:9) or a professional class of learned men, 'scribes' able to read and write (Jer 8:8; 36:23, 26, 32; Ezek 9:2-3). By the first century their vocation was devoted to the preservation and interpretation of Torah and application of Jewish law. For more information on the professional development and service of scribes see the comment on Luke 5:21. The pairing of the Pharisees and scribes suggests the majority of the scribes were Sadducees and their association likely indicates membership in the Temple ruling council (cf. Matt 23:2; John 8:3). were grumbling: Grk. diagonguzō, impf., 3p-pl., to grumble or murmur in a complaining manner. The verb occurs only in Luke (also 19:7). In the LXX the verb occurs frequently for Heb. loon ("to grumble, to be obstinate") in the Torah of Israelites grumbling against Moses (Ex 15:24; 16:2, 7, 8; 17:3; Num 14:2; 16:11; Deut 1:27). Since Yeshua was "the prophet like Moses" (Deut 18:15; John 5:46; Acts 3:22; 7:37), Luke purposely make a connection between the Pharisees and scribes to the critics of Moses. saying: Grk. legō, pl. pres. part., to make a statement or utterance, whether oral or in written form, here the former. The focus of the verb may be declarative, interrogative or imperative; answer, ask, declare, say, speak, tell. that: Grk. hoti, conj., a versatile particle used primarily to introduce clauses that provide explanations, reasons, or content; for, that, because, since. The conjunction is used here to introduce a direct quotation and functions as quotation marks. Most versions do not translate the conjunction. This man: Grk. houtos, demonstrative pronoun signifying a person, thing or action set forth in narrative; lit. "this one." receives: Grk. prosdechomai, pres. mid., may mean (1) to receive to oneself in a kindly mode, welcome; or (2) to look forward to in a receptive frame of mind, to wait for. The first meaning applies here. sinners: pl. of Grk. hamartōlos. See the previous verse. The pejorative label probably includes the tax collectors. and eats with: Grk. sunesthiō, pres., to share a meal with, to eat with. them: pl. of Grk. autos. The complaint is likely meant as a description of a pattern of behavior, although the apostolic narratives report only one such meal of eating with "sinners" and that in Capernaum (Luke 5:29-30). The condemnation here repeats the slander by Yeshua's critics that he "came eating and drinking" (Luke 7:34). The criticism could also include the times when Yeshua ate outdoors with a multitude (Mark 8:1-9; Luke 9:12-17). Yet, the critics ignored the times Yeshua dined with Pharisees (Luke 7:36; 11:31; 14:1). The Lost Sheep, 15:3-7 3 Then he spoke to them this parable, saying, Then: Grk. de, conj. he spoke: Grk. legō, aor. See the previous verse. to: Grk. pros, prep., lit. "near or facing" (DM 110), to, towards, with. Here the preposition denotes speaking face to face. them: pl. of Grk. autos, personal pronoun. See verse 1 above. The nearest antecedent for the pronoun is the mention of "sinners" in the previous verse, but as a defensive discourse it would be directed to the grumbling "Pharisees and scribes." this: Grk. houtos, demonstrative pronoun. See the previous verse. parable: Grk. parabolē, a brief and instructive saying or story full of substance or meaning, involving some likeness or comparison to encourage a new perspective, sometimes with admonitory force; illustration, parable, or proverb. The story parable (Heb. haggadah) was commonly used in rabbinic teaching of the time and many examples can be found in Brad Young's book on parables. Haggadah proclaims a powerful message that usually demands a decision. A good story can drive home the point better than a sermon (Young 8). The phrase "this parable" refers to the first parable of the three. The basic premise of this parable is repeated in Matthew 18:12-14, but there it is addressed to his disciples with a completely different application. saying: Grk. legō, pres. part. The verb introduces the following parable. 4 "What man of you, having a hundred sheep and having lost one of them, does not leave the ninety nine in the pasture and go after the one having been lost until he finds it? Reference: Matthew 18:12. What: Grk. tís, interrogative pronoun indicating interest in establishing something definite; who, which, what, why. man: Grk. anthrōpos, human being, man or mankind. The noun refers here to an adult male. The use of anthrōpos marks an important difference from the second parable. of: Grk. ek, prep. used to denote derivation or separation, here the former; out of, out from among, from. you: Grk. humeis, pl. second person pronoun. The pronoun alludes to the grumbling Pharisees and scribes. having: Grk. echō, pres. part., to have, hold or possess with a wide range of application. The verb stresses ownership. a hundred: Grk. hekaton, the cardinal number used to denote the quantity of one hundred. sheep: Grk. probaton, sheep (whether ram or ewe). In Greek antiquity probaton in its widest sense denoted all four-footed animals (especially tame, domestic ones) as opposed to swimming and creeping animals. In the LXX probaton translates Heb. tson, a word for small livestock (sheep, goats, flock) and means primarily the sheep as a useful and gregarious animal (Gen 4:2; 30:38) (DNTT 2:412). Probaton also translates Heb. seh, sheep or lamb (Gen 22:7; Ex 12:3; Isa 53:7). An adult female sheep is called "ewe," an adult male "ram" and a young sheep "lamb." During the first century a flock of sheep would number 20 to 500 (Jeremias 133). Sheep and goats were grazed together but separated in the evening, for the goats spent the night in the center of the pen or of the walled enclosure, where it was warmer (cf. Matt 25:32). Jeremias notes that counting typically occurred before putting them in the fold at night, to make sure none had been lost. So the number reference here could imply the count having been made the evening before the incident described next. The sheep is a ruminant mammal, exclusively herbivorous, classified as clean in the Torah suitable for sacrifice and food (Lev 22:19-30). A sheep's wool is the most widely used animal fiber, which is removed by shearing (Gen 31:19; 38:12; 1Sam 25:7). Sheep possess good hearing and are sensitive to noise when being handled. They have excellent peripheral vision and even see behind them without turning the head around. Sheep have poor depth perception; shadows and dips in the ground may cause sheep to baulk. In general, sheep have a tendency to move out of the dark and into well lit areas, and prefer to move uphill when disturbed. Sheep also have an excellent sense of smell with scent glands just in front of the eyes, and on the feet. Sheep are flock animals with a dominance hierarchy and are strongly gregarious. Sheep have a natural inclination to follow a leader to new pastures. Sheep do not defend territories although they do form home ranges. All sheep have a tendency to congregate close to other members of a flock, and sheep can become stressed when separated from their flock members. During flocking, sheep have a strong tendency to follow and a leader may simply be the first individual to move. Being a prey species, the primary defense mechanism of sheep is to flee from danger. Cornered sheep may charge and butt, or threaten by hoof stamping and adopting an aggressive posture. Sheep are frequently thought of as unintelligent animals. Their flocking behavior and quickness to flee and panic can make shepherding difficult. However, scientific studies have confirmed that sheep can recognize individual human and sheep faces, and remember them for years. In addition to long-term facial recognition of individuals, sheep can also differentiate emotional states through facial characteristics. If worked with patiently, sheep may also learn their names. There are striking differences between sheep and goats including their taxonomy, general physical differences, tails, diet, general behavior, horns and relative dominance. Goats are quite curious and independent by nature. Sheep have a stronger flocking instinct and become very agitated if they are separated from the rest of the flock. It is easier to keep sheep inside a fence than goats. For a discussion on their differences see the article at Sheep101. The active voice of "having" implies the possibility that Pharisees and scribes could own sheep, although there is no anecdotal evidence of such. In the pursuit of their profession scribes were forbidden to charge fees for their services, so they earned their living from a trade. Paul's Pharisee mentor Gamaliel had taught, "Excellent is the study of the Torah together with a worldly occupation" (Avot 2:2). Shammai (50 B.C. - A.D. 30), the Pharisee and President of the Sanhedrin during most of Yeshua's ministry was known to be a carpenter (Shab. 31a). Paul practiced the tentmaking trade (Acts 18:3). On the other hand Yeshua's question could simply be a challenge to imagine being in the role of a shepherd. Alford ignores the reference "of you" in the opening question and declares "The man having the hundred sheep, is plainly "the Son of God, the Good Shepherd." However, Nicoll observes that even the Pharisees and scribes would so act in temporal affairs as the man in the parable. Then he says, "Every human being knows the joy of finding things lost. It is only in religion that men lose the scent of simple universal truths." and: Grk. kai, conj. having lost: Grk. apollumi, aor. part., may mean (1) cause severe damage; destroy, kill, ruin; or (2) experience disconnection or separation; lose, perish, die. The second meaning applies here with focus on loss from sight and from the flock. one: Grk. heis, the numeral one. of: Grk. ek, prep. them: pl. of Grk. autos, personal pronoun. Somehow one sheep became separated from the flock. The verbal clause contrasts with the description of Matthew 18:12 of one sheep "having strayed" (Grk. planaō, "cause to wander"). The concept of going astray is fig. of unintentional sin (Lev 5:18; Ps 119:176; Isa 53:6). Separation might occur if a sheep busy with grazing doesn't notice that the flock has moved or becomes entangled in a bramble bush. Adam Clarke comments, "No creature strays more easily than a sheep; none is more heedless; and none so incapable of finding its way back to the flock, when once gone astray: it will bleat for the flock, and still run on in an opposite direction to the place where the flock is: this I have often noticed." The term "sheep" is used figuratively in Scripture for the people of Israel, whether gathered, protected, straying or victimized (Ps 44:2; 74:1; 78:52; 79:13; 95:7; 100:3; Isa 53:6; Jer 23:1; 50:6; Matt 10:6; 15:24; Mark 6:34). Stern comments that the sheep parable echoes the prophetic message of Ezekiel 34 (131). In that chapter ADONAI charges the shepherds (the leaders of Israel) with the fault for the wandering of His sheep (the Israelites). In the previous century Jeremiah presented a similar message of rebuke (Jer 50:6). Yeshua's parable thus provides a veiled criticism of the Pharisees who were supposed to be teachers of Israel (John 3:10), but disdained the common people (cf. Matt 9:36; John 7:49; 10:11-13). does not: Grk. ou, adv., a particle used in an unqualified denial or negation. leave: Grk. kataleipō, pres., to leave behind or to leave to oneself. This action is taken by the owner while shepherding his flock when he becomes aware that a sheep is missing. the ninety: Grk. enenēkonta, the number ninety. nine: Grk. ennea, the number nine. The mention of a number reflects the practice of a farmer keeping a count of his animals. in: Grk. en, prep., with the root meaning of "within," generally marks position; among, at, in, on or with (DM 105). the pasture: Grk. ho erēmos, an unpopulated region, desert or lonely place. In the LXX erēmos often translates Heb. midbar, which refers to tracts of land used for pasturage or uninhabited land (BDB 484), first in Genesis 14:6. and go: Grk. poreuomai, pres. mid., to make one's way or move from one area to another; go, journey, proceed, or travel. after: Grk. epi, prep. with the root meaning of "upon" is used primarily as a marker of position or location; in, on, upon, over. The preposition is used here to stress motion and direction toward a terminus (Thayer). the one: Grk. ho, definite article, but used here as a demonstrative pronoun. having been lost: Grk. apollumi, perf. part. The owner searches diligently for the missing sheep. until: Grk. heōs, adv. denoting a limit, here with a temporal meaning in reference to time or calendar; until. he finds: Grk. heuriskō, aor. subj., to discover or find something, especially after searching. it: neut. of Grk. autos; i.e., the lost sheep. The owner-shepherd doesn't give up until his search is rewarded. The action of the shepherd may seem shocking to the Western mind. To leave the flock untended in order to search for one lost sheep would surely expose the flock to danger. Alfred Edersheim comments: "The lost sheep is only one among a hundred: not a very great loss. Yet which among us would not, even from the common motives of ownership, leave the ninety-and-nine, and go after it, all the more that it has strayed into the wilderness?" (651) In reality the shepherd can leave the ninety-nine to search for one, because of the flocking instinct of sheep. The ninety-nine will stay together where the shepherd left them. The risk to the flock is highest when moving the flock between pastures and at night when predators prowl nearby. The search obviously takes place during day-light hours and if the sheep isn't found before nightfall, then the chances of recovery are very low. 5 And having found it, he lays it on his shoulders, rejoicing. Reference: Matthew 18:13. And: Grk. kai, conj. having found it: Grk. heuriskō, aor. part. See the previous verse. he lays it: epitithēmi, pres., may mean (1) to put or place something on or transfer to; or (2) to engage in violent treatment against; attack, assault. The first meaning applies here. on: Grk. epi, prep. his: Grk. autos, personal pronoun. shoulders: pl. of Grk. ho ōmos, the anatomical part of the body in humans, at the top of the trunk, extending from each side of the base of the neck to the region where the arm articulates with the trunk; shoulder. Plummer notes that the owner does not drive it back, nor lead it back, nor have it carried: he carries it himself. God is also viewed like a shepherd who carries His lambs and by extension His sons and daughters (cf. Isa 40:11; 49:22; 60:4; 66:12). rejoicing: Grk. chairō, pres. part., to be in a state marked by good feeling about an event or circumstance; be happy, glad, delighted, rejoice. Plummer comments that there is no upbraiding of the wandering sheep, nor murmuring at the trouble. So, too, ADONAI rejoices over His people (Deut 30:9; Zeph 3:17). Edersheim notes an apt parallel to Yeshua's parable in the Jewish Midrash (653), as does Levine (132), which relates how when Moses fed the sheep of Jethro in the wilderness, and a kid went astray, he went after it, and found it drinking at a spring. As he thought it might be weary, he laid it on his shoulder and brought it back, and God said that because he had shown pity on the sheep of a man, He would give him His own sheep, Israel, to feed (Exodus Rabbah 2:2). 6 And having come to the house, he calls together his friends and his neighbors, saying to them, 'Rejoice with me, for I have found my sheep, the one having been lost!' And: Grk. kai, conj. having come: Grk. erchomai, aor. part., 'to come' or arrive, with focus on a position from which action or movement takes place or 'to go' with the focus on the goal for movement; here the former. to: Grk. eis, prep. that focuses on entrance, frequently in relation to a direction toward a goal or place and consequent arrival; for, into, to, unto. the house: Grk. ho oikos may mean a structure for habitation or persons inhabiting a house, here the former. In this scenario the owner-shepherd does not leave the flock in the pasture when he returns to his house. A sheep pen could be co-located with the house. Also, there is no implication that the owner brings the sheep into his house. Instead he would restore the found sheep to the flock. he calls together: Grk. sugkaleō, pres., to call together, to assemble, to summon. his friends: mas. pl. of Grk. ho philos, which may serve as adj. to denote being friendly or kindly disposed toward or a noun to denote a degree of peaceful relationship, more than a casual acquaintanceship; here the latter, friend. The mention of male friends suggests a relationship of trust and mutual service. and his neighbors: mas. pl. of Grk. ho geitōn, one who lives close by, a male neighbor. The gathering might well imply a celebratory meal. saying: Grk. legō, pres. part. See verse 2 above. to them: pl. of Grk. autos, personal pronoun; the friends and neighbors. Rejoice with: Grk. sugchairō, aor. pass. imp., to take part in another's joy; congratulate, rejoice with. me: Grk. egō, first person pronoun. for: Grk. hoti, conj. I have found: Grk. heuriskō, aor. See verse 4 above. my: Grk. egō. sheep: Grk. ho probaton. See verse 4 above. The "man" (verse 4) owns the entire flock, but his focus is on the one sheep. the one: Grk. ho, definite article but used here as a demonstrative pronoun. having been lost: Grk. apollumi, perf. part. See verse 4 above. The action of the owner-shepherd to reach out to his friends and neighbors reinforces the truth that good news cannot and should not be kept to oneself (cf. Luke 2:17-18; 8:39; John 4:28-29). These people in the community represent the shepherd's sphere of influence and they must know the importance of the flock to the shepherd. They would understand the cost of procuring and providing for livestock and the importance of success and prevention of loss in agribusiness to both personal financial security and the overall economy. 7 I say to you that in the same way, there will be joy in heaven over one sinner repenting than over ninety-nine righteous ones who have no need of repentance. I say: Grk. legō, pres. See verse 2 above. to you: Grk. humeis, pl. second person pronoun; i.e., the Pharisees and scribes. Christian commentators tend to treat the parable as an allegory and interpret each detail, but Yeshua does not. Yeshua now presents the message of his parable. that: Grk. hoti, conj. in the same way: Grk. houtōs, adv. used to introduce the manner or way in which something has been done or to be done; so, thus, in this manner, in this way or like this. The adverb makes a comparison with the two previous verses. there will be: Grk. eimi, fut. mid. See verse 1 above. Some versions translate the verb as present tense, but the future tense anticipates the penitent action that follows. joy: Grk. chara (from chairō, "to rejoice"), an emotional response experienced and expressed in a variety of circumstances; joy, delight, gladness. The noun includes an awareness of God's grace and favor (HELPS). In Scripture joy is often associated with worship, festivals and the blessings of God. Many versions insert "more" before "joy" even though it is not in the Greek text in order to create a comparison of greater measure. The joy in Heaven is the same as that expressed in the two previous verses, i.e., shared rejoicing. in: Grk. en, prep. heaven: Grk. ho ouranos, refers to the area above the earth that encompasses three "heavens" (Ps 148:1-4): the atmosphere (Luke 8:5), interstellar space (Luke 21:26) and the location of God's throne (Luke 2:15). The third heaven is in view here. Barnes suggests "heaven" refers to angels as in verse 10, but heaven has a diverse population as seen in the book of Revelation. over: Grk. epi, prep. one: Grk. heis, adj., the number one. sinner: Grk. hamartōlos. See verse 1 above. Connecting "one sinner" with "one lost sheep" Yeshua gives definition to the word "sinner," one who strays from the flock. The modern Christian definition of being spiritually lost is not having a personal relationship with God, no forgiveness of sins, and not being a part of the family of God (cf. Eph 2:11-12). In the Jewish context being a sinner denotes a person spiritually separated from God because of not living in covenantal faithfulness. The Jewish sinner did not lose association with the chosen nation, but was to be sought out and corrected in order to be restored to fellowship with God and the community (cf. Lev 19:17; Isa 1:17; Ezek 34:16; Matt 18:15-17; 1Tim 5:20; 2Tim 4:2). repenting: Grk. metanoeō, pres. part., to have a serious change of mind and heart about a previous point of view or course of behavior; repent. The present tense in this context could indicate punctiliar action relative to a specific transgression or habitual action as a manifestation of spiritual health. In Scripture repentance is not simply regret or being sorry for past behavior. Rather repentance is action taken to remedy failure by getting right with God. Thus, in Scripture genuine repentance consists of four elements: (1) recognizing one's behavior as sinful (Luke 5:32); (2) committing to cease sinful conduct (John 5:14; 8:11); and (3) becoming obedient to God's commandments (Luke 3:8). If any of these elements is missing repentance is not considered genuine, but deceitful. Repentance requires honest self-evaluation, which should lead the sincere person to identify any number of faults for which confession is necessary. Especially important is a commitment to change, to stop sinful practices, as the Scripture says, "Wash and make yourselves clean. Put away the evil of your deeds from before My eyes. Cease to do evil." (Isa 1:16 TLV) "Let the wicked forsake his way, and the unrighteous one his thoughts, let him return to ADONAI, so He may have compassion on him, and to our God, for He will abundantly pardon." (Isa 55:7 TLV) Stern notes there is joy in heaven over an open sinner who has obvious need to repent and does so at last. But there is also joy over those who have maintained a condition of righteousness by always and regularly turning to God in repentance (1Jn 1:9), who do not need the thorough and soul-shaking experience of repentance which a lost person often goes through when he turns to God from a life pattern of sin. One can almost imagine a heavenly marquee listing names, so that there is continual joy among heaven's residents. In contrast Edersheim notes a Rabbinic saying, "There is joy before God when those who provoke Him perish from the world" (652). This illustrates the utter disdain Pharisees had for those they labeled as "sinners." than: Grk. ē, conj. used to denote an alternative ("or") or a comparison ("than"), here the latter. over: Grk. epi. ninety: Grk. enenēkonta, adj., the number ninety. nine: Grk. ennea, adj., the number nine. righteous ones: pl. of Grk. dikaios, adj., being in accord with Torah standards for acceptable behavior, upright or just. In Scripture a righteous person is one who is innocent of wrongdoing and one who lives in a manner pleasing to God. who: Grk. hostis, relative pronoun used as a generalizing reference to the subject of a verb or a preceding entity; who, whoever, everyone who. have: Grk. echō, pres., 3p-pl. See verse 4 above. no: Grk. ou, adv., not. need: Grk. chreia, state or experience of necessity; need. This term can refer to physical needs, such as food or clothing, but here alludes to a spiritual or moral need. of repentance: Grk. metanoia, a serious change of mind and heart about a previous point of view or course of behavior. In the LXX metanoia occurs only one time and without Hebrew equivalent in Proverbs 14:15, "The guileless believe every word, but the astute one comes to repentance" (ABP). The noun occurs in Josephus to represent the change of mind of those who have begun to abhor their misdeeds, and have determined to begin a better course of life, so that it embraces both a recognition of sin and sorrow for it and hearty amendment, the tokens and effects of which are good deeds (Ant. XIII, 11:3). The corresponding Hebrew noun is shuvah, which means to turn away from evil in the sense of renouncing and disowning sin, and to turn toward the good or becoming obedient to God's will expressed in the commandments (TWOT 2:909). The noun occurs one time in Isaiah 30:15, "For thus says ADONAI Elohim, the Holy One of Israel: 'By repentance and rest you are saved, in quietness and trust is your strength, but you were not willing'" (TLV). True repentance requires honest self-evaluation, which should lead the sincere person to identify any number of faults for which confession is necessary. Repentance was actually a virtue in Jewish culture. The daily prayer, Amidah, which dates from the 5th century BC, included repentance in the fifth benediction, which reads in its original Jerusalem form, "Return us, our Father, to Your Torah, and draw us near, our King, to serve You. Restore us to Your presence in complete repentance. Blessed are You, O Lord, Who desires repentance." This petition is based on Lamentations 5:21, "Bring us back to You, ADONAI, and we will return. Renew our days as of old" (TLV). Yeshua appears to engage in hyperbole by presenting a statistically unrealistic scenario that out of one hundred people only one needs to repent. How can there be people who need no repentance? Indeed the comment that ninety-nine would not need to repent could be pure sarcasm conveyed by tone of voice and facial gesture. The Pharisee critics of Yeshua would identify with the 99 since they considered themselves to be righteous. These religious snobs viewed observing their legalistic traditions as the standard of righteousness (Matt 6:1; Luke 18:11; Php 3:6). In contrast Rabbi Eleazer (A.D. 80-120) taught his disciples: "Repent one day before your death." His disciples asked him, "But can a man know on what day he will die? He said, "Then all the more reason that he repent today, lest he die tomorrow, and thus his whole life is spent in repentance" (Shab. 153a). Similarly Ben Sira exhorted, "Do not delay to turn to the Lord, nor postpone it from day to day; for suddenly the wrath of the Lord will go forth, and at the time of punishment you will perish" (Sirach 5:7). King Solomon observed, "There is not a righteous man on earth who continually does good and who never sins" (Eccl 7:20 NASU). Jacob, the Lord's brother, concurs saying, "For we all stumble in many ways" (Jas 3:2 NASU). John the apostle insisted that it is a lying boast for a man to say he has no sin needing forgiveness (1Jn 1:8, 10). Yeshua is the only completely righteous man, being without sin (2Cor 5:21; Heb 4:15; 7:26; 1Pet 2:22; 1Jn 3:5). Thus, Yeshua's comment here may reflect a wry humor and mean that the righteous who need no repentance do not exist (Young 195). Yet, it is also possible that in this hypothetical scenario Yeshua classifies persons as righteous from God's point of view. That is, the 100 sheep began in a right relationship with God, they quit sinning (as biblically defined) and they live according to God's commandments (cf. 1Jn 2:3; 3:6-10, 22-24). Then his point is that if one of the righteous does go astray into sin there will be joy in heaven when the offender admits his wrong and repents of his sin. Interpretation The main point of the parable is that God cares deeply about the spiritually lost. Alfred Edersheim comments: "As we think of it, we remember that it is natural for foolish sheep to wander and stray. And we think not only of those sheep which Jewish pride and superciliousness had left to go astray, but of our own natural tendency to wander. And we recall the saying of St. Peter, which, no doubt, looked back upon this Parable: 'Ye were as sheep going astray; but are now returned unto the Shepherd and Bishop of your souls (1Pet 2:25)." (651) Edersheim insists that it would only diminish the pathos of this wonderful parable were we to attempt interpreting its details (652). Three features of the parable stand out: the lost sheep; the shepherd seeking, finding, bearing, and rejoicing; and the heavenly joy when repentance occurs. The parable does not present Yeshua as the good shepherd who sacrifices his life for the lost sheep (John 10:11, 15), but as the "Son of Man" who "came to seek and save the one having been lost" (Luke 19:10). The seeking of the Son of Man is an important divine initiative. In much of the Tanakh God expects the sinner to seek Him (1Chr 16:11; Ps 105:4; Isa 55:6; Amos 5:6; Zeph 2:3). Finally, in the book of Ezekiel God is presented as seeking His lost sheep (Ezek 34:11, 16). God goes a step further by announcing, "I will set over them one shepherd, My servant David, and he will feed them" (Ezek 34:23 NASU). Thus the shepherd David becomes a type of the Messiah and Yeshua proclaiming this parable connects himself to Ezekiel's prophecy. The Lost Coin, 15:8-10 8 "Or what woman having ten drachmas, if she should lose one drachma, does she not light a lamp and sweep the house and search carefully until that coin she finds? Or: Grk. ē, conj. Plummer comments that the conjunction almost implies that the second parable is little more than an alternative way of saying the same thing as the first. The second parable is unique to Luke. what: Grk. tís, interrogative pronoun. woman: Grk. gunē, an adult female person without respect to age, social status, or marital status, except as defined by the context; woman, wife. having: Grk. echō, pres. part. See verse 4 above. Again the verb stresses ownership. ten: Grk. deka, adj., the primary numeral ten. drachmas: pl. of Grk. drachmē, a coin and a unit of currency in ancient Greece equal to the Roman denarius or a laborer's daily wage. It was commonly made of silver and so many versions translate the plural term as "silver coins." The term occurs only in this chapter of Luke. The drachma was one of the world's earliest coins, first minted in the 6th century B.C. It became a standard currency throughout the Greek world and was widely used in trade and commerce. The fact that drachma is a feminine noun may only be coincidence, but could have been purposely chosen. The term drachma occurs seven times in the LXX (Gen 24:22; Ex 38:25; 1Chr 29:7; Ezra 2:69; 8:27; Neh 7:70, 72). The term also occurs in works of Philo (Special Laws II, 33) and Josephus (Ant. III, 8:2; Wars I, 16:3). Luke's use of drachma reflects the Hellenistic influence on the Jewish economy and society during the time of Yeshua. Its purchasing power was by no means insignificant; according to one Greek writer it was the price of a sheep or one-fifth the price of an ox (BAG 205). See a picture here. Joel Green, as many commentators, regards the woman as a poor peasant, and the coins, corresponding to ten days' wages, "likely represent the family savings" (576). In contrast Howard Marshall suggests the coins may have been the woman's dowry, worn as an ornament (603). Liefeld also accepts the dowry proposal, citing Jeremias (134) as support. N.T. Wright concurs with both possibilities (185), but Plummer contends a head ornament is a thought imported into the parable. Nicoll favors the dowry proposal and cites Tristram as support. H.B. Tristram traveled extensively in Israel and the Middle East and affirms that the drachmas were not money carried in a purse but treasured heirlooms strung in a headdress (76f). These treasures were the exclusive property of the woman and they descended from mother to daughter. The ten drachmas were obviously important to the woman. Considering the purchasing power of the drachma but essentially taken out of circulation, then having a headdress of ten was the opposite of abject poverty (cf. Luke 21:2). Use of the term might indicate the parable is based on a true story of a woman Yeshua knew. if: Grk. ean, conj., lit. "if," a particle that introduces a conditional particle that produces an aspect of tentativeness by introducing a possible circumstance that determines the realization of some other circumstance, such as "if x happens, y will follow." she should lose: Grk. apollumi, aor. subj. See verse 4 above. one: Grk. heis, the number one. drachma: Grk. drachmē. Considering its value the loss of one drachma would be a serious concern. The loss of a coin from the headdress might occur when it would be removed for washing the hair or sleeping. does she not: Grk. ouchi, an emphatic negative particle used to challenge assumptions, correct misunderstandings, or emphasize a truth; not, by no means, indeed not. light: Grk. haptō, pres., lit. "to touch," to cause to be in a burning state by touching with fire. a lamp: Grk. luchnos, an oil-fed portable vessel for providing light. In the first century the term referred to small oil and wick lamps used in household dwellings. The translation of "candle" and "candlestick" in the KJV and a few other versions is inaccurate, since the molded candle in use today was not invented until the Middle Ages. and: Grk. kai, conj. sweep: Grk. saroō, pres., to clean by sweeping. the house: Grk. ho oikia may mean either (1) a habitable structure, house; or (2) fig. a group within a house, household or family. The first meaning is intended here. A coin could easily roll out of sight. and search: Grk. zēteō, pres., to seek or search for in order to find. carefully: Grk. epimelōs, adv., carefully, diligently. The adverb occurs only here in the Besekh. until: Grk. heōs, adv. See verse 4 above. that coin: Grk. hos, relative pronoun used to specify or give significance to the mention of a person, thing, or piece of information in the text; who, which, what, that; i.e., the missing coin. she finds: Grk. heuriskō, aor. subj. See verse 4 above. The clause stresses the urgency of the search and the relief felt upon success. Levine observes that if the shepherd in the previous parable is understood as God, so should this woman be. God is sometimes portrayed as a woman, e.g., Isaiah 42:14; 49:15. Solomon personified God as "Wisdom," a feminine noun, one who offers guidance and instruction, inviting people to follow her ways for a life of fulfillment and righteousness (Prov 1:20; 8:1-36; 9:1-6). Yet, Yeshua offers no such application and the message of the parable is given in verse 10. 9 And having found it, she calls together her friends and neighbors, saying, 'Rejoice with me, because I have found the drachma that I lost!' And: Grk. kai, conj. having found it: Grk. heuriskō, aor. part. See verse 4 above. she calls together: Grk. sugkaleō, pres. See verse 6 above. Green suggests that the invitation may reflect a celebratory meal, which recalls the meals Yeshua is accused of sharing with "sinners" (576). her friends: fem. pl. of Grk. ho philos. See verse 6 above. and neighbors: fem. pl. of Grk. ho geitōn. See verse 6 above. The feminine form of the two nouns emphasizes her connection to other women. Plummer comments that no meaning is to be sought in the change of gender from the previous parable, which merely preserves the harmony of the picture. It is women who congratulate Naomi and Ruth (Ruth 4:14, 17). saying: Grk. legō, pres. part. See verse 2 above. Rejoice with: Grk. sugchairō, aor. pass. imp., 2p-pl. See verse 6 above. me: Grk. egō, first person pronoun. because: Grk. hoti, conj. I have found: Grk. heuriskō, aor. the drachma: Grk. ho drachma. See the previous verse. that: fem. of Grk. hos, relative pronoun. I lost: Grk. apollumi, aor. See verse 4 above. The announcement perhaps implies the woman had previously reported the loss to her friends. Her emotional reaction stresses the high value she placed on the lost drachma and gives more credence to the suggestion of it being part of a dowry. 10 Thus, I say to you, there is joy before the angels of God over one sinner repenting." Thus: Grk. houtōs, adv. See verse 7 above. I say: Grk. legō, pres. See verse 2 above. to you: Grk. humeis, pl. second person pronoun; i.e., the Pharisees and scribes. there is: Grk. ginomai, pres. pass., to transfer from one state to another, and here means come to be, become, take place, happen, occur. joy: Grk. chara. See verse 7 above. in the presence of: Grk. enōpion, prep., from a word meaning "facing" with the basic idea of being 'in sight of' or 'in the presence of.' The term does not mean "on the part of." of the angels: pl. of Grk. ho aggelos, messenger, whether human or divine, here referring to celestial beings. See my article The Host of Heaven. This statement forms a parallelism with verse 7 and equals "in heaven." of God: Grk. ho theos, properly God, the omnipotent, omniscient, omnipresent Creator and owner of all things (Gen 1:1). Theos is not a philosophical construct for monotheism, the belief in one deity. In the LXX theos translates primarily Heb. Elohim (pl. of El, "God" or "Power"). In Hebrew thought the plural form of Elohim represents fullness, intensity or majesty, rather than number (DNTT 2:67), which excludes the possible existence of any other deity. The only God in existence is the God of Israel (Ex 5:1; Isa 44:6; 45:5-6; 46:9; Luke 1:68). over: Grk. epi, prep. one: Grk. heis, adj., the number one. sinner: Grk. hamartōlos. See verse 1 above. repenting: Grk. metanoeō, pres. part. See verse 7 above. This declaration affirms the value and worth of every individual to God (2Pet 3:9). Liefeld observes that this parable, like that of the lost sheep, justifies Yeshua's welcome of sinners (verse 2). The Lost Younger Son, 15:11-24 11 Then he said, "A certain man had two sons. Then: Grk. de, conj. he said: Grk. legō, aor. See verse 2 above. A certain: Grk. tis, indefinite pronoun; a certain one, some one, any one. This pronoun is often used to distinguish someone or something of consequence in contrast to others. man: Grk. anthrōpos. See verse 4 above. As the story progresses this man is distinguished as a man of wealth. had: Grk. echō, impf. See verse 4 above. two: Grk. duo, adj., the number two. sons: pl. of Grk. huios, generally a male offspring, whether by direct birth or by more remote ancestry, here the former. While men named in Scripture often had many sons, usually because of polygamy, several men in the history of Israel are described as having only two sons: Eber (Gen 10:25), Joseph (Gen 41:50), Reuben (Gen 42:37), Moses (Ex 18:6), Aaron (Lev 16:1), Elimelech (Ruth 1:2), Eli (1Sam 2:34), and Zebedee (Mark 10:35). All of these men held a prominent place in God's story of salvation. The grammar of the opening clause may imply that the "certain man" was someone Yeshua knew or was well known. The third parable is commonly referred to as the Parable of the Prodigal Son. The parable tells the story of three persons, a father and his two sons. The mother of the sons does not appear. The story details how the two sons both disappoint the father. Both sons are lost, but in different ways (Young 130). Conversely, Pryor points out that the parable is not primarily about a sinner, the "prodigal son." He further suggests that in its original Jewish setting, as spoken to a Jewish audience, it was actually a dramatic story about a merciful father (43). Jeremias also expresses this point of view suggesting the parable be called "Parable of the Father's Love" (128). The third parable provides a sharp contrast with the two previous parables by emphasizing the difference between animals and objects that have no souls, and human beings who have the power of choice and thus responsibility for their actions. Christian interpretation as early as Augustine has treated the two sons as symbolic of mankind with the younger son standing for Gentiles and the elder son representing Jews (Meyer). Lightfoot favors this approach, even offering a prejudicial characterization of Jews based on the elder son's boastfulness. The father is the loving, compassionate God the Father. Yet, the descriptions of the relationships in this family are complicated. Jews and Gentiles could not be described as "brothers" (cf. Eph 2:11-12). The two sons each have sinful attitudes, but can the father's treatment of his sons be without fault? Ellis insists that the father in this parable is not God and that it is a mistake to allegorize the parable to find a "universal fatherhood of God." Yet, the parable does mean that God's love for the lost in Israel is like the father's concern for his sons in this story. Luke's readers would quite properly would understand this concern to extend to the Gentiles (cf. Luke 13:18-21; 24:47). The parable has two parts that dramatize the family dynamic and the relationship between the father and two sons bears some similarity to stories of fathers and sons in the Tanakh (e.g., Isaac and his sons, Jacob and his sons and David and his sons). Considering the parable as reflecting Jewish culture in the first century the younger son seems to resemble the tax collectors and sinners, whereas the elder son seems to resemble the Pharisees and scribes. Yet, as Young insists, this parable is not a polemic against Pharisees (136), but an appeal to self-examination and a challenge to understand the biblical theology of mercy and redemption. 12 And the younger of them said to his father, 'Father, give me the portion of the estate belonging to me.' Then he divided his wealth between them. Reference: Luke 12:13. And: Grk. kai, conj. the younger: Grk. ho neos, adj., new or young, here the latter, i.e. younger in order of birth. The two sons were not twins, and the younger son could have been a son of the father's old age as Joseph (cf. Gen 37:3). of them: pl. of Grk. autos, personal pronoun. See verse 1 above. said: Grk. legō, aor. See verse 2 above. to his father: Grk. ho patēr, normally used of a male biological parent, but also someone who fulfilled the role of a father or an ancestor. Father: Grk. patēr, voc. give me: Grk. didōmi, aor. imp., to give, used in a wide variety of situations, often with the focus on generosity. The imperative mood conveys a strong entreaty approaching a demand. the portion: Grk. ho meros, a segment of a whole, used here of a share in something of financial value. of the estate: Grk. ho ousia, what one has, here of inherited property; estate, property, substance. In the Besekh the term occurs only in this chapter of Luke. Ousia appears frequently in classical Greek writings (LSJ) and in earlier Jewish literature in the Apocrypha (Tobit 14:13; 3Macc 3:28). belonging: Grk. epiballō, pres. part., to move something so as to put it over or on something; used here in an impersonal sense of belonging to or assigning a share. Plummer notes the use of epiballō in regard to entitlement in inheritance matters in the Apocrypha (Tobit 3:17; 6:11; 1Macc 10:30). to me: Grk. egō, first person pronoun. The younger son essentially asked for the monetary value of his share of the inheritance. In Jewish law property is transferred from father to son (Baba Bathra 8:1). A written testament or will was not necessary to convey property upon death. Under the Torah the firstborn son was granted a double portion of the father's estate (Deut 21:17). With two sons the father's goods were divided into three parts, and the firstborn took two parts, and the second son the third part. Daughters only inherited if there were no sons (Num 27:8). Young characterizes the son's request as a death wish (138). The younger son wants the money more than the father's life or life with his father. Maybe the son always treated the father as an ATM, rather than work for what he wanted as the elder brother did (verse 29). The division of property is very much at the heart of the story and thus bears similarity to the occasion when a younger son appealed to Yeshua to take his side in an estate dispute with his older brother (Luke 12:13). Yeshua refused to get involved and warned the younger son against greed. Complying with the younger son's request was allowed in Jewish inheritance law. The father would retain what is called "usufruct rights" if he divided his estate before death (B.B. 8:9; cf. Sirach 33:19-23). The term "usufruct" means "the right of enjoying all the advantages derivable from the use of something that belongs to another." So the father would still live on the farm, work the land and benefit from farm production. Nevertheless, the younger son's request would be shocking to the original audience. He would likely be put in the same category as foolish sons that deprive parents of honor and respect (cf. Ex 21:15-17; Deut 21:18-19; Prov 17:25; 19:13; 28:24). Then: Grk. de, conj. he divided: Grk. diaireō, aor., to divide, to distribute; properly, apportion or assign by the choice of a superior. his wealth: Grk. ho bios, the present state of existence and by implication the means of livelihood. between them: pl. of Grk. autos; i.e., the two brothers. It was not possible for the father to physically divide the inheritance, since the complete estate would include the land, buildings, furnishings, crops, livestock, personal property and income assets. Ownership of land could only be transferred upon death. To satisfy the son's request for money the father would have to sell some assets. It is very easy to focus interpretation on the younger son, but the parable has three men and each one has a role in what happens. The fact that the father acquiesced to the younger son's request may imply that the father was in the habit of spoiling the younger son, so that he didn't learn responsibility. The younger son's request is outrageous, and yet the older son is silent. He could have rebuked his younger brother for his blatant selfishness. Maybe he was influenced by the knowledge that two-thirds of the estate belonged to him and so his portion came to him sooner than he would have expected. Viewing the father in the parable as symbolic of God is problematic. Although the younger son had a legal right to his portion, the father's decision to provide the money could be viewed as facilitating the later sinful life of the son. Yet, Scripture affirms that God is not the author of sin (cf. Jas 1:13; 1Jn 1:5; 2:16; 3:8) and human beings are responsible for their choices (Ezek 18:1-32; Rom 1:16-17; Jas 1:14; 2Pet 3:9). Young correctly points out that God as a compassionate Father allows His children the freedom to choose, even if they make the wrong choice and bring disaster on themselves (148). So, the father could have declined the request. Nevertheless, granting the legal right provides the setup for the rest of the parable. 13 And not many days after, having gathered together everything the younger son went away into a distant country, and there he squandered his estate, living prodigally. And: Grk. kai, conj. not: Grk. ou, adv. many: pl. of Grk. polus, adj., extensive in scope, either indicating number ("many"); or high degree in amount or quality ("much, great"), here the former. days: pl. of Grk. hēmera, day, generally the interval between sunrise and sunset, but here an imprecise period or timeframe for accomplishing something. The phrase "many days" occurs frequently in Scripture narratives, which could range from many weeks or months or even years. The negation of the time reference would suggest a period of perhaps a month. after: Grk. meta, prep. denoting either (1) association or accompaniment, among, with; or (2) sequence, after, behind; here the latter. The start point for the temporal reference is the father's agreement to bestow the younger son's portion. having gathered together: Grk. sunagō, aor. part., to bring together in a collective manner; assemble, collect, gather. everything: pl. of Grk. pas, adj. See verse 1 above. The plural adjective refers to all the assets that the father gave to his son. Barnes suggests that if he had received flocks or grain, he sold them and converted them into money. Changing assets into money could take several days. Plummer notes that nothing was left behind that would guarantee return. the younger: Grk. neos, adj. See the previous verse. son: Grk. huios. See verse 11 above. went away: Grk. apodēmeō, aor., to go away from one's locality, to travel, to make a trip. into: Grk. eis, prep. The preposition stresses crossing a political boundary. a distant: Grk. makros, adj., may mean (1) long in terms of duration of time; or (2) distant, far off or remote in spatial terms. The second meaning applies here, but the first could have application also. The adjective implies more than a few days journey. country: Grk. chōra, a stretch of territory defined by national or place names or language as noted in the narrative context; country, land, region. The phrase "distant country" implies a land occupied by foreigners, i.e., outside of the holy land and in the Diaspora (cf. Gen 11:28; Deut 28:49; 29:22; Josh 9:6; 1Kgs 8:41; Isa 33:17; Jer 4:16; 6:20; 8:19; 30:10; Mic 4:3). The location would not be so far as to complicate the return in verse 20, such as crossing an ocean. The term "distant" is applied to Arabia Felix (LXX Jer 6:20; Hab 1:8) and Babylon (LXX Jer 30:10). Alexandria in Egypt would also be logical choice. and there: Grk. ekei, adv. of location, in that place, there. The adverb stresses being away from his father's care and restraint, and from the observation of those who knew him (Plummer). he squandered: Grk. diaskorpizō, aor., to scatter or disperse, here in the extended sense of squandering or wasting. his: Grk. autos, personal pronoun. estate: Grk. ho ousia. See the previous verse. living: Grk. zaō, pres. part., be in the state of being alive, but used here in a fig. sense of the manner of living and acting; of morals or character. prodigally: Grk. asōtōs, adv. (from asōtos, prodigality, wastefulness), in a spendthrift manner; dissolutely, prodigally, recklessly, wastefully. The adverb occurs only here in the Besekh. Of interest is that the noun asōtos occurs in the LXX of Proverbs 7:11 in reference to consorting with a harlot and in Ephesians 5:18 of excess alcohol consumption. Peter describes the behavior as engaging in "sensuality, lusts, drunkenness, carousing, drinking parties and abominable idolatries" (1Pet 4:3-4). Two versions have "prodigal living" (MEV, NKJV), but many versions minimize the description of the younger son's behavior as "foolish living." The TLB may have the best interpretation: "he wasted all his money on parties and prostitutes." The younger son devoted himself to a completely hedonistic lifestyle, something he could not have done at home. Ellicott notes that from this location rumor came home of riotous living, and a fortune wasted upon harlots, sabbaths broken, synagogues unvisited, perhaps even of participation in idol feasts (see verse 30 below). 14 Now his having spent everything, there came to pass a severe famine throughout that country, and he began to be in need. Now: Grk. de, conj. his: Grk. autos, personal pronoun. having spent: Grk. dapanaō, aor. part., to incur expense, spend money. everything: pl. of Grk. pas, adj. See verse 1 above. Ignoring the lessons he no doubt received from his father's frugality, the immature son did not consider that sinful living is expensive. With no thought for his future the young man failed to invest his money to earn more. Instead he easily fell prey to the seduction of immediate gratification and no doubt unscrupulous predators. there came to pass: Grk. ginomai, aor. mid. See verse 10 above. The Greek construction is a peculiar characteristic of Luke's writing style, appearing in the Besekh only in his writings, 17 times in this narrative of Yeshua and 20 times in Acts. The verb is often used in Scripture (first in Gen 1:3) to introduce an important event that includes some dramatic action by God or an individual that impacts the biblical story or serves God's sovereign planning. a severe: Grk. ischuros, adj., highly capable for special exertion or activity; mighty, powerful, strong. famine: Grk. limos, a severe condition of misery caused by an acute lack of food that can lead to malnutrition, starvation and death and impacting a large area. Throughout Bible times famines were not infrequent, generally caused by a lack of adequate rainfall (cf. Gen 12:10; 26:1; 41:27; Ruth 1:1; 2Sam 21:1; 1Kgs 18:2; 2Kgs 4:38). throughout: Grk. kata, prep. used to signify (1) direction, 'against, down;' (2) position, 'down, upon, in;' or (3) relation, 'according to, in reference to.' The preposition is used here of motion or extension through a space from top to bottom; hence through, throughout (Thayer). that: Grk. ekeinos, demonstrative pronoun typically used to refer to a noun (person or thing) immediately preceding in the Greek text; that, that one there. country: Grk. chōra. See the previous verse. The famine was limited in territory which suggests a divine prerogative. and: Grk. kai, conj. he: Grk. autos. began: Grk. archō, aor. mid., may mean (1) to rule or (2) to begin or commence something. The second meaning is intended here. to be in need: Grk. hustereō, pres. pass. inf., be in a relatively deficient or disadvantaged state or condition, be in want. Yeshua summarizes the adverse economic impact of the famine and notes that the prodigal was affected just as the rest of the country. Yeshua also highlights the synchronicity of two causally unrelated events (penury and famine) occurring simultaneously that are more than mere coincidence. The combination of having spent his money and the onset of the famine meant that he was threatened with starvation. 15 and having gone he joined himself to one of the citizens of that country, and he sent him into his fields to feed pigs. and: Grk. kai, conj. having gone: Grk. poreuomai, aor. part. See verse 4 above. he joined himself: Grk. kollaō, aor., adhere to, stick to or attach to. The verb alludes to desperation after having expended his money. The choice of this verb instead of misthoō, "to hire for wages" (Matt 20:1) is curious. Edersheim suggests that the employment only came about by "desperate importunity." to one: masc. of Grk. heis, adj., the number one. of the citizens: masc. pl. of Grk. politēs, a native inhabitant of any city or country. of that: Grk. ekeinos, demonstrative pronoun. See the previous verse. country: Grk. chōra. See verse 13 above. The citizen was no doubt wealthy and prominent. Plummer notes that the prodigal had not gained a friend in need. and he sent: Grk. pempō, aor., to send, typically dispatched as a messenger, but here directed to a location. The subject of the verb is the "citizen" in the previous sentence who was obviously a man of property. him: Grk. autos, personal pronoun. into: Grk. eis, prep. his: Grk. autos. fields: pl. of Grk. ho agros, a country area or open space used mainly for agriculture; farm, field. to feed: Grk. boskō, pres. inf., to provide fodder, which is coarse food for livestock; feed. The infinitive expresses purpose. pigs: pl. of Grk. choiros, an omnivorous, domesticated, even-toed, hoofed mammal named the domestic pig, hog or swine. The noun choiros does not occur in the LXX, but is known in Greek literature from as early as Homer (8th c. BC). The term is also found in Josephus, Against Apion 2:14 and The Testament of Judah 2:5. Choiros denotes a young pig (LSJ) and occurs 12 times in the Besekh. The mention of swine in Scripture is rare. The Greek word for an adult male or female hog is hus, found only in 2Peter 2:22, and is used in the LXX to translate Heb. chazir, swine (Lev 11:7, Deut 14:8; Ps 90:13; Prov 11:22). The historical background needs to be considered. From the beginning Adam and his immediate descendants subsisted on a vegetarian diet, but after the global deluge God added meat to the diet of mankind (Gen 9:3). Two thousand years later at Mt. Sinai God issued new diet instructions to His people Israel. Of land mammals only animals that have a divided hoof AND chew the cud are acceptable for eating (Lev 11:3). The pig is specifically listed among the forbidden animals (Lev 11:7). Before Sinai the pig was kosher and Moses could have eaten pork because previously there was no law against it. The animal restrictions imposed at Sinai were part of God's covenant with Israel. In other words, God required Israelites to refrain from eating animals that were permitted for Gentiles. The Torah regulation emphasizes this separation from the Gentiles by referring to the banned animals eleven times as "unclean to you" (e.g., Lev 11:4). God's rationale is not disclosed, but it had nothing to do with the animals themselves. The only statement God makes that approaches being a reason for a strict diet is the desire for Israel to be a holy nation (Lev 20:25-26). The limited diet imitated the selectivity of God in choosing Israel out of all the nations. God expected Israel to be holy in the positive sense of belonging wholly to Him. The diet restriction was a practical way to teach Israel how to act with discrimination according to the standard of holiness. Yet, when Israel rebelled against God in the time of Isaiah the people sinned by consuming and sacrificing pigs (Isa 65:4; 66:3, 17). Most commentators assume that the keeping of swine reported in the parable was by Gentiles. The distant country was presumptively Gentile, but there would have been Jews in the population. In the first century there were numerous Jewish settlements in Asia Minor, Egypt, Greece, Italy and the islands of the Aegean, that had resulted from emigration (sometimes voluntary and sometimes forced) from Babylon (Tarn & Griffith 219). Moreover, Hellenistic Jews were known for abandoning Torah standards (Ibid. 223-227). David Stern asks, "What is a nice Jewish boy doing, feeding pigs?" This point of the story would be shocking to a Jewish audience. Plummer notes that feeding pigs would be a degrading employment for anyone [sic], and an abomination to a Jew (that is an Orthodox Jew). Contrary to Plummer's comment modern farmers don't consider it degrading to feed pigs! Edersheim notes that the keeping of swine (although perhaps the ownership rather than the feeding) was prohibited to Israelites under a curse (Baba Kama 7:7; 82b). This prohibition is connected by tradition with Maccabean times. Stern opines that for the Jewish boy to feed pigs meant a surrender of his Jewish identity. This viewpoint reflects the modern Jewish concern about assimilation with Gentile culture. However, this is not a point that Yeshua makes. God's covenantal election is irrevocable (cf. Hos 1:9-10; Jer 31:35-37; 33:23-26; Rom 11:1-2, 28-32). The young man did not surrender his Jewish identity. Moreover, overlooked by commentators is that the young Jewish man does not eat pork! The Torah command specifically prohibits eating pork and touching a pig carcass (Lev 11:8). The regulation does not prohibit feeding pigs even though they are unclean. From the Pharisee point of view merely being in a pen with a pig would make one unclean just as being in a house with a tax collector. The scenario that Yeshua describes is only meant to demonstrate the impact of poverty on the young man. 16 And he was longing to fill his stomach from the carob-pods that the pigs were eating, and no one was giving anything to him. And: Grk. kai, conj. he was longing: Grk. epithumeō, impf., may mean (1) have a strong desire for, desire, long for; or (2) have inordinate desire, implying intent to acquire, covet, lust. The first meaning is intended here. to fill: Grk. chortazō, aor. inf., to have one's fill, be satisfied. his: Grk. autos, personal pronoun. stomach: Grk. ho koilia, the abdomen and here the stomach. from: Grk. ek, prep. the carob-pods: pl. of Grk. ho keration, the husk (pod) of the carob, fruit of the carob tree. This fruit is shaped like a horn and has a sweet taste; it was (and is) used not only in fattening swine, but as an article of food by the common people (Thayer). Edersheim in his commentary on this parable (IV.17) notes that according to Jewish ideas, it took seventy years before the carob-tree bore fruit (Bechoroth 8a). The term does not occur in the Tanakh but it appears frequently in the Mishnah (e.g., Peah 1:5; Shabbath 24:2; Baba Bathra 2:7). Its fruit seems to have been the food of ascetics, such as Chanina b. Dosa (Ber. 17b), and Simeon b. Jochai (Shabb. 33b), and according to a Jewish tradition it had been food for Yochanan the Immerser (cf. Matt 3:4; Mark 1:6; Luke 7:33). that: Grk. hos, relative pronoun. the pigs: pl. of Grk. choiros. See the previous verse. were eating: Grk. esthiō, impf., 3p-pl., to eat or partake of food in the mouth. and no one: Grk. oudeis (from ou, "not," and heis, "one"), adj., used to indicate negation of a person or thing as actually existing at a given place or moment; no one, not one, none. The negation is emphatic. was giving: Grk. didōmi, impf. See verse 12 above. to him: Grk. autos. Plummer comments that neighbors cared nothing about this half-starved foreigner, who even in this vile employment could not earn enough to eat. Commentators generally interpret this clause as referring to food and provisions, including the carob-pods. 17 Now having come to himself, he was saying, 'How many hired servants of my father have abundance of bread, but I am perishing here in a famine! Now: Grk. de, conj. having come: Grk. erchomai, aor. part. See verse 6 above. to himself: Grk. heautou, reflexive pronoun of the third person. Liefeld says this phrase was a common idiom (cf. Acts 12:11). A number of versions translate the pronoun as "his senses" (CEB, CEV, CJB, CSB, GW, GNT, NABRE, NASB, NIV, NRSVU). The verbal phrase is indicative of gaining intellectual awareness that enables objective analysis of the circumstances. Brown notes that before, he had been "beside himself" (Eccl 9:3). This is the equivalent of an "aha" moment in which he sees things more clearly than he had in the past, equivalent to spiritual enlightenment. So the phrase denotes the prelude to repentance. Edersheim quotes a Jewish saying (655), "When Israel is reduced to the carob-tree, they become repentant" (Leviticus Rabbah 35.6). he was saying: Grk. phēmi, impf., to convey one's thinking through verbal communication, say, declare. How many: Grk. posos, interrogative pronoun, how much, how great, how many. hired servants: pl. of Grk. misthios, adj., a paid worker, hired servant. The noun occurs only in this chapter of Luke. of my: Grk. egō, first person pronoun. father: Grk. patēr. See verse 12 above. have abundance: Grk. perisseuō, pres. mid., 3p-pl., to abound, to be in abundance, to overflow. of bread: Grk. artos, bread or food, which refers to a baked product made from cereal grain, and was often used as a synonym for food in general. The contrast is not between bread and the carob-pods but the abundance compared to his deprivation (Plummer). but: Grk. de. I: Grk. egō. The first person pronoun stresses intense self awareness. am perishing: Grk. apollumi, pres. mid. See verse 3 above. here: Grk. hōde, adv., in this place. The adverb contrasts conditions in the distant country with the young man's home. in a famine: Grk. limos. See verse 14 above. Most versions translate the noun as "hunger," but the noun includes his entire physical and social condition by virtue of the famine and lack of money. Plummer observes that "want rekindles what his revelry had extinguished." With the rhetorical question posed here the young man laments his foolishness for turning his back on the good life he had at home and now must endure extremely reduced circumstances. Brown comments that "now empty, desolate, withered, and perishing, home with all its peace, plenty, freedom, and dignity comes into view, fills all his visions as a warm and living reality, and breaks his heart." 18 Having arisen I will go to my father, and I will say to him, "Father, I have sinned against Heaven, and before you; Self-awareness now transforms into purpose and a plan. Having arisen: Grk. anistēmi, aor. part., to rise, stand up or get up and in its ordinary use refers to the physical motion of transition from a sitting or recumbent position or simply standing. The participle anticipates waking up early in the morning to set his plan in motion. I will go: Grk. poreuomai, fut. mid. See verse 4 above. Jeremias says the opening verbal clause anistēmi poreuomai is equivalent to "I will go at once" (131). to: Grk. pros, prep. See verse 3 above. The preposition depicts face-to-face communication. my: Grk. egō, first person pronoun. father: Grk. patēr. See verse 12 above. The parable doesn't explain how in his financial deprivation the son would be able to afford the return trip to his home. and: Grk. kai, conj. I will say: Grk. ereō, fut., denoting speech in progress, to speak or say. to him: Grk. autos, personal pronoun. Father: Grk. patēr, voc. I have sinned: Grk. hamartanō, aor., cause to be alongside instead of on target, to miss and in a moral sense to do wrong. The verb is used of offenses against the moral law of God as defined in the Torah. against: Grk. eis, prep. See verse 6 above. Here the preposition denotes being in opposition to someone, against (Thayer). Heaven: Grk. ho ouranos. See verse 7 above. Ouranos is often used as a Semitic euphemism for the sacred name of God (Bivin 57; e.g., Matt 3:2; 21:25). Thus, the phrase "against Heaven" is a Hebraism for "against God" (Edersheim). The Greek clause is a word picture of sins entering heaven to be recorded (Rev 20:12). Sins are first offenses against God. While the son does not use the term for repentance his planned confession is the first step of repentance, namely admitting the wrong done (cf. Josh 7:20; 1Sam 15:24; 2Sam 12:13; Ps 41:4; 51:4). The sins are not named but the confession probably alludes to his dissolute life in the foreign country. Young notes that the attitude presented in the son's confession is rooted in shame for the wrongs he has committed against God (145). and before: Grk. enōpion, prep. See verse 10 above. you: Grk. su, second person pronoun. Noteworthy is that the planned declaration does not say "I have sinned against you," but the son acknowledges that the sin is regarded as something to be judged by his father (Plummer). Asking for his inheritance could be treated as a sin, even though legal, because in effect he broke the fifth commandment. The planned affirmation depicts the sins against Heaven as being committed in the presence of the father and thus the son acknowledges that his misconduct brought shame on his father. 19 I am no longer worthy to be called your son. Make me like one of your hired men."' I am: Grk. eimi, pres. See verse 1 above. no longer: Grk. ouketi, adv. of cessation of an activity or condition; no longer, no more. worthy: Grk. axios, adj., having worth or value, in the sense of being weighed on a scale; worthy, worthy of, deserving. to be called: Grk. kaleō, aor. pass. inf., to call and may mean (1) express something aloud, say; (2) solicit participation, call, invite; or (3) identify by name or give a term to. The third meaning applies here. your: Grk. su, second person pronoun. son: Grk. huios. See verse 11 above. This admission is a reminder that being a "son" is not just based on blood (cf. John 1:12-13). Make: Grk. poieō, aor. imp., a verb of physical action that may refer to (1) producing something material; make, construct, produce, create; or (2) to be active in bringing about a state of condition; do, act, perform, work. The second meaning applies here. me: Grk. egō, first person pronoun. like: Grk. hōs, adv. with the primary function of connecting narrative components, and used here for comparative purpose with a pattern or model in mind. one: Grk. heis, adj., the number one. of your: Grk. su. hired men: pl. of Grk. misthios. See verse 17 above. Having taken and squandered his inheritance and brought shame on his father in the process the prodigal did not believe he was fit to resume his place at the family table. Yet he longed for home. He therefore hoped to earn his father's favor through good works and thereby be provided with room and board. Plummer notes that this would be a promotion from his present position. There would be no pigs on his father's farm. Barnes observes that the prodigal had no adequate sense of his father's kindness. After all, the father could have refused to grant the inheritance. The father was far more kind than he had dared to hope he would be; just as all sinners undervalue the character of God, and find him always more kind than they had supposed. No sinner comes to God with a just and adequate view of His character, but "always" finds him more merciful than he had dared to hope. The Compassionate Father, 15:20-24 20 And having arisen he came to his own father. Now he still being distant far off, his father saw him and felt compassion, and having run fell upon his neck and kissed him. Plummer notes that here the narrative respecting the younger son practically ends. What follows (verses 20-24) is mainly his father's treatment of him; and it is here that this parable comes into closest contact with the two others. And: Grk. kai, conj. having arisen: Grk. anistēmi, aor. part. See verse 18 above. he came: Grk. erchomai, aor. See verse 6 above. to: Grk. pros, prep. See verse 3 above. The preposition stresses a face-to-face meeting. his own: Grk. heautou, reflexive pronoun, lit. "of himself." father: Grk. ho patēr. See verse 12 above. The pronoun heautou combined with the noun "father" has the force of a possessive pronoun (Thayer). Thus the use of heautou especially emphasizes the filial bond and the love the son had for the father. Some versions, especially Messianic, render the pronoun with "his own" (AMPC, DARBY, LEB, MJLT, OJB, TLV, YLT). The prodigal faithfully carried out his resolution. The return would have required travel money and preparation, and necessity motivated its accomplishment. The details of the journey are passed over as of no consequence and the focus is on his arrival. Now: Grk. de, conj. he: Grk. autos, personal pronoun; the prodigal. still: Grk. eti, adv. expressing continuance of an action; as, even yet, yet, still. being distant: Grk. apechō, pres. part., be away from, be distant. far off: Grk. makran, adv., far off or away. The description perhaps alludes to the distance the human eye can see on a clear day with no obstructions, up to three miles. However, recognition requires a shorter distance. his: Grk. autos. father: Grk. ho patēr. saw: Grk. horaō, aor., to perceive physically with the eye, or in a fig. sense to experience something or to have extraordinary mental or inward perception. him: Grk. autos. Edersheim suggests that the we must evidently understand the verbal clause in the sense that the father had been always on the outlook for his prodigal son, an impression strengthened by the later commands in verses 22-23. and felt compassion: Grk. splagchnizomai, aor. pass. (from splagchna, "the inward parts"), be inwardly moved by a circumstance or condition; have compassion, feel sympathy. The verb does not occur in the LXX but it corresponds to the Hebrew verb racham ("to have compassion, to show mercy, to love deeply"), which is used of an attribute of God's nature, especially exhibited toward His chosen people (Ex 33:19; Deut 13:17; 30:3; 32:36; 2Kgs 13:33; Ps 102:13; 103:13; 116:5; Isa 14:1; 30:18; 49:13; 54:8; 60:10; Jer 42:12; Ezek 39:25; Mic 7:19). Liefeld comments that the father's "compassion" assumes some knowledge of the son's pitiable condition, perhaps from reports (cf. verse 30 below). Yet, compassion was not just felt but demonstrated. and having run: Grk. trechō, aor. part., move forward rapidly, generally of physical motion of running. In this culture a man of advanced years running might be considered undignified, although Abraham did run on occasion (Gen 18:2, 7). Vincent quotes an Eastern proverb, "Who draws near to me (God) an inch, I will draw near to him an ell [=45 inches]; and whoso walks to meet me, I will leap to meet him." fell: Grk. epipiptō, aor., come upon with sudden movement; fall upon, rush or press upon. upon: Grk. epi, prep. his: Grk. autos. neck: Grk. trachēlos, the part of the body that connects the head and the trunk. and kissed: Grk. kataphileō (from kata, "down," and phileō, "regard with affection, kiss"), aor., to touch or press with the lips in an expression of affection, love, greeting, reverence, etc. him: Grk. autos. Edersheim translates the phrase as "kissed him much" (656). Men embracing and kissing other men was normal in the culture (cf. Gen 29:13; 33:4; 45:15; 50:1; Ex 4:27; 18:7; Acts 20:37). The description of acceptance and affection heightens the contrast between the father's attitude and that of the elder brother (and of the Pharisees, cf. verses 1-2). 21 Now the son said to him, 'Father, I have sinned against Heaven and before you; I am no longer worthy to be called your son.' Now: Grk. de, conj. At this point the father having run to meet the prodigal, the two men are alone. the son: Grk. ho huios. See verse 11 above. said: Grk. legō, aor. See verse 2 above. to him: Grk. autos, personal pronoun. Father: Grk. patēr, voc. See verse 12 above. The son may have been surprised by the greeting, but he pressed ahead with his planned speech. I have sinned against Heaven and before you: The first part of the confession is repeated verbatim from verse 18 above. I am no longer worthy to be called your son: The second part of the confession is repeated verbatim from verse 19 above. Plummer comments that having made a good resolution, the prodigal acts upon it without delay. The repentance is as real and decided as the fall. He presents a full confession without excuse. Liefeld notes that the son's speech was never completed. Instead the father by his following actions more than reversed the unspoken part about becoming a "hired man." The prodigal was welcomed with great honor. Edersheim (656) comments that in one of the oldest Rabbinic works (The Sifre) is a Parable exactly the reverse of this, when the son of a friend is redeemed from bondage, not as a son, but to be a slave, that so obedience might be demanded of him. The inference drawn is, that the obedience of the redeemed is not that of filial love of pardoned, but the enforcement of the claim of a master. How otherwise is the Parable and teaching of Christ!" 22 Then the father said to his servants, 'Quickly bring out the best robe and clothe him, and give a ring for his hand and sandals for his feet; Then: Grk. de, conj. the father: Grk. ho patēr. See verse 12 above. said: Grk. legō, aor. See verse 2 above. to: Grk. pros, prep. See verse 3 above. The preposition depicts face-to-face communication. his: Grk. autos, personal pronoun. servants: pl. of Grk. ho doulos, someone who belongs to another and obligated to obey the requirements of the superior. In Greek and Roman culture those classified as doulos were viewed as owned property with few rights and an indefinite term of service; slave or servant. In Jewish culture the term usually denotes household servants or farm laborers, as well as those who worked for the King and those who served God, especially service in the temple (DNTT 3:593). Israelites in servitude, whether involuntary or voluntary, had rights that did not exist in pagan societies, such as resting on the Sabbath (Ex 20:10; 23:12), being treated fairly (Lev 25:46; Col 4:1), sharing in festival offerings (Deut 12:18; 16:11), and being released after six years of service (Ex 21:2). The father says nothing to his son, letting his actions demonstrate his joyful attitude. Plummer suggests that the servants had not run out with the father to meet the prodigal, so the following communication was not given until the two had reached the house. He then issues five commands to his servants. Quickly: Grk. tachus, adv., exhibiting swiftness; speedily, quickly, without delay. The point is not to delay or procrastinate. bring out: Grk. ekpherō, aor. imp., 2p-pl., cause to move or emerge from a position; bring or carry out. the best: Grk. ho prōtos, adj., may indicate (1) having primary position in a sequence; first, earlier, earliest; or (2) standing out in significance or importance; first, foremost, prominent. The second meaning is intended here. robe: Grk. stolē, robe, especially a long-flowing and stately robe. Plummer suggests the robe was "the finest in the house," thus the great majority of versions have "best robe." The robe could have been a special garment reserved for this moment. The term for "robe" is used of high quality robes worn by priests (Ex 28:2; 29:5; Neh 7:70), kings (2Sam 6:14; 2Kgs 5:5; Jon 3:6), religious leaders (Mark 12:38; Luke 20:46), angels (Mark 16:5), and glorified saints (Rev 6:11; 7:9, 13; 22:14) (Thayer). and: Grk. kai, conj. clothe: Grk. enduō, aor. imp., 2p-pl., provide covering, to clothe and wear. him: Grk. autos. Thus, a servant putting the robe on the son would designate him as possessing an exalted status. and give: Grk. didōmi, aor. imp., 2p-pl. See verse 12 above. a ring: Grk. daktulios, ring for a finger. The noun occurs only here in the Besekh. The term occurs frequently in Greek literature and the LXX. for: Grk. eis, prep. his: Grk. autos. hand: Grk. ho cheir, the anatomical limb of the hand. Plummer suggests this "ring" is intended to be a signet-ring, which would indicate that he was a person of standing and perhaps authority in the house (cf. Gen. 41:42; Esth 3:10; 8:2, 8, 10; Dan 6:17; 1Macc 6:15). and: The conjunction would imply repetition of the third command. sandals: pl. of Grk. hupodēma, what is bound under (the foot), a sandal. The shoe was considered the humblest article of clothing and could be bought cheaply. Two types of shoes existed: slippers of soft leather and the more popular sandals with a hard leather sole. Thongs secured the sandal across the insole and between the toes. for: Grk. eis. his feet: mas. pl. of Grk. ho pous, the anatomical limb of the foot. Going without shoes was a sign of poverty and reproach and it may be that the prodigal had returned home barefoot. Jeremias (130) notes that the father's gifts are similar to those received by Joseph from Pharaoh, which included a ring, robe, and golden neck collar (Gen 41:42). Liefeld suggests the robe, ring, and sandals signified more than sonship. These public tokens of honor would be signs that the shame of the past behavior had been forgiven. 23 and bring the fattened calf, kill it, and having eaten let us celebrate; and: Grk. kai, conj. bring: Grk. pherō, pres. imp., 2p-pl., to move from one position to another; to bear, carry (bring) along, especially to a definite or prescribed conclusion (HELPS). the fattened: Grk. ho siteutos, adj., fed abundantly before slaughter; fattened, fatted. The adjective occurs only in this chapter in the Besekh. calf: Grk. ho moschos, a young bovine offspring, young bull or calf. The calf was apparently being "fattened" for some special occasion, and there was no better time than now. kill it: Grk. thuō, aor. imp., 2p-pl., may mean (1) to conduct ritual sacrifice, especially in the context of festivals; (2) to slaughter for food; or (3) to kill for the sake of destruction. The second meaning applies here. Plummer insists that the slaughter was not a sacrifice, but the calf was one of the animals prescribed for the peace offering (Ex 20:24; Num 7:88; 15:8). So there is a ritual significance in providing a calf as the principal food source in the following communal celebration. and having eaten: Grk. esthiō, pl. aor. part. See verse 16 above. let us celebrate: Grk. euphrainō, aor. pass. subj., 1p-pl., make glad or happy, be glad, even celebrate. The subjunctive mood has a hortatory function here. There are only two anecdotes in Scripture of a fattened calf being killed and eaten on a special occasion: (1) when Abraham provided hospitality to three men that turned out be ADONAI and two angels (Gen 18:7-8); and (2) when a woman of En-dor prepared a meal for King Saul and his servants (1Sam 28:24). Jeremias notes that as a rule meat is only rarely eaten (130). The killing of the calf meant a feast for the family and the servants. The commands to the servants are clear tokens of the father's forgiveness and reinstatement of his prodigal son. 24 because this son of mine was dead and has come to life again; he was lost and has been found.' And they began to celebrate. because: Grk. hoti, conj. See verse 2 above. this: Grk. houtos, demonstrative pronoun. See verse 2 above. son: Grk. huios. See verse 11 above. of mine: Grk. egō, first person pronoun. was: Grk. eimi, impf. See verse 1 above. dead: Grk. nekros, adj., without life, generally in the physical sense; being dead, dead one. Here the adjective has a figurative sense. The prodigal was "dead in trespasses and sins" (Eph 2:1). and: Grk. kai, conj. has come to life again: Grk. anazaō, aor., to return to life after a state of death. The phrase depicts spiritual resurrection. he was: Grk. eimi, impf. lost: Grk. apollumi, perf. part. See verse 4 above. and has been found: Grk. heuriskō, aor. pass. See verse 4 above. The terminology alludes sheep in the first parable becoming lost and then being found and restored to the flock. So being "found" the prodigal has been restored to the family. And they began: Grk. archō, aor. mid., 3p-pl. See verse 14 above. to celebrate: Grk. euphrainō, pres. mid. inf. See the previous verse. Liefeld notes that as in the parables of the lost sheep and the lost coin, it was time to "celebrate."
Works Cited Alford: Henry Alford (1810-1871), Greek Testament Critical Exegetical Commentary (1878). 6 vols. Guardian Press, 1976. Online. BAG: Walter Bauer, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. trans. W.F. Arndt & F.W. Gingrich. The University of Chicago Press, 1957. Barnes: Albert Barnes (1798-1870), Notes on the New Testament: Explanatory and Practical (1884). Online. BDB: The New Brown, Driver, Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon. London: Oxford University Press, 1907. Reprinted by Associated Publishers and Authors, Inc., 1981. Online. Bivin: David Bivin, New Light on the Difficult Words of Jesus: Insights from His Jewish Context. En–Gedi Resource Center, 2007. Brown: David Brown (1803-1897), The Gospel According to Luke, Commentary Critical and Explanatory on the Whole Bible (1871), Robert Jamieson, A. R. Fausset and David Brown. Online. Danker: F.W. Danker, The Concise Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament. The University of Chicago Press, 2009. DM: H.E. Dana & Julius R. Mantey, A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament. The Macmillan Co., 1955. DNTT: Dictionary of New Testament Theology, 3 Vols. Colin Brown, ed. Zondervan Publishing House, 1975. Edersheim: Alfred Edersheim (1825-1889), The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah (3rd ed. 1886). Hendrickson Publishers, Inc., 1993. Online. Ellicott: Charles John Ellicott (1819–1905), Commentary for English Readers (1878). Online. Farrar: Frederic W. Farrar (1831–1903), The Gospel According to Luke, The Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges. Cambridge University Press, 1891. Online. Geldenhuys: Norval Geldenhuys, Commentary on the Gospel of St. Luke. William B. Eerdmans Pub. Co., 1951. (NICNT) Gill: John Gill (1697-1771), Exposition of the Entire Bible. Online. Green: Joel B. Green, The Gospel of Luke. William B. Eerdmans Pub. Co., 1997. (NICNT) HELPS: The Discovery Bible New Testament: HELPS Word Studies. eds. Gleason L. Archer and Gary Hill. Moody Press, 1987, 2011. (Online at BibleHub.com) Henry: Matthew Henry (1662-1714), Commentary on the Whole Bible (1706). Unabridged Edition. Hendrickson Publishers, 1991. Online. Jeremias: Joachim Jeremias (1900-1979), Parables of Jesus, 2nd ed. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1972. Liefeld: Walter L. Liefeld, Luke, Expositor's Bible Commentary, Vol. 8. Software version 2.6. Zondervan Corp, 1989-1999. Lightfoot: John Lightfoot (1602-1675), A Commentary on the New Testament from the Talmud and Hebraica (1859 ed.), 4 Vols. Hendrickson Pub., 1989. Online. LSJ: Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon. Revised and augmented by Sir Henry Stuart Jones. Clarendon Press, 1940. Online. Marshall: I. Howard Marshall, The Gospel of Luke. William B. Eerdmans Pub. Co., 1978. [The New International Greek Testament Commentary] Meyer: Heinrich August Wilhelm Meyer (1800-1873), Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the New Testament (1859). 21 vols. T&T Clark, 1880. Online. Mounce: William D. Mounce, Mounce Concise Greek-English Dictionary of the New Testament. 2011. Online. Nicoll: W. Robertson Nicoll (1851–1923), The Expositor's Greek Testament (1897), 5 vols. Online. Plummer: Alfred Plummer (1841-1926), A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on The Gospel According to S. Luke. 5th edition. T&T Clark, 1922. Online. Pryor: Dwight A. Pryor, Behold the Man: Discovering our Hebrew Lord, the Historical Jesus of Nazareth. Center for Judaic-Christian Studies, 2005. Santala: Risto Santala, The Messiah in the New Testament in the Light of Rabbinical Writings. Keren Ahvah Meshihit, 1984, 1992. Online. Stern: David Stern, Jewish New Testament Commentary, Jewish New Testament Publications, 1996. Tarn & Griffith: Sir William Tarn and G.T. Griffith, Hellenistic Civilization. 3rd Edition. Edward Arnold Publishers, Ltd., 1952. TDSS: The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation. Rev. ed. Trans. Michael Wise, Martin Abegg Jr. and Edward Cook. HarperOne, 2005. Thayer: Joseph Henry Thayer, Greek–English Lexicon of the New Testament. Harper Brothers, 1889. Online. Tristram: Henry Baker Tristram (1822-1906), Eastern Customs in Bible Lands. Hodder and Stoughton, 1894. Online. TWOT: R. Laird Harris, ed., Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament. 2 vols. Moody Press, 1980. Vincent: Marvin R. Vincent (1834-1922), Word Studies in the New Testament Charles Scribner and Sons, 1887. Online. Young: Brad H. Young, The Parables: Jewish Tradition and Christian Interpretation. Hendrickson Publishers, 1998. Zodhiates: Spiros Zodhiates (1922-2009), ed. The Complete Word Study Dictionary: New Testament. AMG Publishers, 1992, 1993. Copyright © 2025 Blaine Robison. All rights reserved. |
