Introduction to Luke

Scripture Text: Scripture quotations may be taken from different Bible versions. Click here for Abbreviations of Bible Versions. Quotations marked with the initials "BR" indicate the translation of the article author.

Sources: Bibliographic data for works cited may be found at the end of the article. Works without page numbers are cited ad loc.

Syntax: Unless otherwise noted the meaning of Greek words is from F.W. Danker, The Concise Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament (2009).

Special Terms: In order to emphasize the Hebrew and Jewish nature of the entire Bible I use the terms Yeshua (Jesus), Messiah (Christ), ADONAI (for the sacred name YHVH), Torah (Pentateuch, Law), Tanakh (Old Testament), and Besekh (New Testament).

Outline

● Caption

● Creator

● Composition

● Contents

● Canonicity

● Conclusion

Caption

Most Greek manuscripts bear the short caption or title Kata Loukan. The phrase is introduced by the preposition kata ("according to," "by way of"). The preposition does not specifically identify the writer, but it does assert the claim of conformity to a standard, identified as Loukan or "Luke." Even so, the early church fathers were confident that the phrase identified the man who held the pen.

The earliest manuscript to bear the name "Luke" is p75 dated c. 175-225 A.D., which at the end has the subscription, Euaggelion kata Loukan, "The Gospel According to Luke" (Jones). The English term "Gospel" translates the Greek noun euaggelion, which means "good news." Everywhere in the apostolic writings the term euangelion is used to refer to "the good news of Yeshua the Messiah." From the early second century as the four Yeshua narratives circulated together in one codex, most bore the title of Luke as "the good news according to Luke." Thus, the short caption presumes the longer title.

Of interest is that none of the apostles use the term euangelion to describe their biographies of Yeshua. Indeed the noun euangelion does not appear at all in the narrative of Luke, although the verb euaggelízō ("to announce good news") is used ten times (Luke 1:19; 2:10; 3:18; 4:18, 43; 7:22; 8:1; 9:6; 16:16 and 20:1). Instead the writer of Luke describes his narrative with the Greek noun diēgēsis, "narrative, account, or record" (Luke 1:1).

Creator

Four apostles wrote narratives of Yeshua's life and ministry and his continued work through the apostles empowered by the Holy Spirit. The narratives of Yeshua's life were written by Jews to Jews about Jews living in the land of Israel. The apostolic narratives were written by men who knew Yeshua personally. All the narratives reflect this kind of first-hand experience. The fact that none of the narratives makes a personal claim of authorship is not a problem for assuming apostolic composition.

"Unlike the Greek, the Jew had no personal pride in authorship, probably because he so often felt himself the vehicle of something before which his own personality sank into insignificance" (Tarn & Griffith 229).

The author of the third biography is presumptively the same person who wrote the book of Acts, based on three considerations (Geldenhuys 15):

● The biography of Yeshua is dedicated to the same person as Acts (Luke 1:3; Acts 1:1).

● In Acts 1:1 the writer refers to the "the first narrative" he composed, which evidently alludes to the Yeshua biography.

● There is an unmistakable similarity in language, style and vocabulary of the original Greek between the Narrative of Yeshua and the Acts of the Apostles.

While none of the narratives of Yeshua assert the name of the writer, early church fathers were unanimous in their conviction that the narratives were authored by well-known apostles. The author of the third Yeshua biography was identified early by Irenaeus (120-202 A.D.) as Luke the physician and companion of Paul (Eusebius, Church History, Book V, §8:3).

Name and Background

The name "Luke" (Grk. Loukas) may be a contracted form of Loukanos, since it was not uncommon in Hellenistic culture to abbreviate proper names (ISBE). Old Latin manuscripts have Lukanum (Plummer xviii). Luke is not a Hebrew name, but Jews were accustomed to taking Gentile names in the Diaspora. The Babylonian Talmud says that Jews in foreign parts bear Gentile names (TB Gittin 11b).

Little is said of Luke in the Besekh and his name appears only three times (Col 4:14; Phm 1:24; 2Tim 4:11). He was a physician and he was a companion and fellow worker of Paul. While Luke does not mention himself by name in either of his biographical narratives, his presence with Paul on missionary journeys is indicated by various "we/us" passages (Acts 16:10-13, 16; 20:5-7, 13-15; 21:1-18; 27:1-8, 14-18, 26-29; 28:1-2, 7-16).

Luke was reported to be from Syrian Antioch (Eusebius, Church History, Book III, §4:7; Jerome, Lives of Illustrious Men, Chap. 7). Christian scholars affirming Luke's Jewish identity are few. Adam Clark in his introduction to Luke says that the English theologian Nathaniel Lardner (1684–1768) declared Luke to be a Jew. Christian scholars typically identify Luke as a Gentile, possibly Greek, who converted out of heathenism to Christianity (ISBE, HBD, NIBD). This conclusion is based on a faulty premise that the charter members of the Antioch congregation were Gentiles. Antioch had a large Jewish population and the first disciples there were in fact Jewish. See my commentary on Acts 11:19-21.

The appearance of Luke with Paul at Troas (Acts 16:10) is seen as supporting this supposed Gentile ethnicity, but Luke makes no such connection. Please note that Irenaeus and Jerome did not say that Luke was a Gentile, only that he came from Antioch. Messianic Jewish writers are not wholly convinced of the Jewishness of Luke. Avi Brickner of Jews for Jesus wrote, "The New Testament writers, with perhaps the exception of Luke, are all Jews." David Stern seems to include Luke when he says that "the New Testament is a Jewish book, written by Jews" (ix), but says that some think Luke was a proselyte (xi).

The introduction to the book of Luke in The Complete Jewish Study Bible says, "Although there is disagreement about this, Luke was more than likely a Jew, possibly a convert" (1468). The introduction to the book "Luke" in the Tree of Life Version by Dr. Jeffrey and Pat Feinberg has this note: "The Gospel of Luke was written by a doctor, but possibly not a Jewish one! Luke may have been one of the "God-fearers, a large group of Gentiles who frequented the synagogue and observed some Jewish customs" (1111). Joseph Shulam confidently asserts, "Colossians 4:12-14 indicates that Luke is not Jewish (xxx).

Let's consider Paul's reference to Luke in the description of his ministry team in his letter to the congregation in Colossae.

"10 Aristarchus my fellow-prisoner greets you, and Mark, the cousin of Barnabas, concerning whom you received instructions; if he comes to you, receive him, 11 and Yeshua, who is called Justus, those being from the circumcision: these only fellow-workers for the kingdom of God, who have been a comfort to me. 12 Epaphras, who is one of you, a servant of Messiah Yeshua, greets you, always striving for you in his prayers, that you may stand perfect and fully assured in all the will of God. 13 For I bear witness of him, that he has much labor for you, and for them in Laodicea, and for them in Hierapolis. 14 Luke, the beloved physician greets you, and also Demas." (Col 4:10-14 BR)

Bible scholars assert that Luke was a Gentile because Paul distinguishes him from those of "the circumcision" (Aristarchus, Mark, and Justus, Col 4:11). Epaphras, Luke, and Demas supposedly form the Gentile group (verse 12-14). Such an assertion displays an ignorance of the label "the Circumcision" (Col 4:11), which identified the radical Circumcision Party. This group is first introduced in Acts 10:45; 11:2. In that narrative the legalists rebuked Peter for going to the home of a Gentile to proclaim the good news. The relevant point is that Peter, a circumcised traditional Jew, was taken to task by the Circumcision Party. In other words, he was not a member of that party.

The Circumcision Party was a fringe Pharisee sect that insisted that Gentile converts complete Brit Milah and become Jewish proselytes to be considered a part of the Messianic Kingdom (Acts 15:1, 5). The Circumcision Party was not mainstream Judaism (cf. Gal 2:12; Titus 1:10). This party was opposed by Paul, a circumcised Pharisee (Php 3:5). Therefore, Luke not belonging to the Circumcision Party cannot be used as proof that he was a Gentile.

In Colossians 4 Paul simply illustrates the diversity of his ministry team. The point about mentioning "the Circumcision" is that those who had once been his opponents in the circumcision controversy were now his devoted fellow workers. In the Diaspora many Hellenistic Jews had ceased circumcising their babies (Tarn & Griffith 224). However, not being a member of the Circumcision Party does not mean that Luke had not been circumcised any more than Paul who did not belong to this party.

Some have suggested that Luke and Titus were brothers (cf. 2Cor 8:18; 12:18), but this is only a guess. On Paul's second missionary journey, Luke accompanied him on the short voyage from Troas to Philippi (Acts 16:10-17). On the third journey, Luke was present on the voyage from Philippi to Jerusalem (Acts 20:5−21:18). Some believe Luke spent the intervening time in Philippi. Luke remained close to Paul during his imprisonment in Caesarea. A third "we" passage in Acts gives a dramatic narrative of the shipwreck at Malta (Acts 27). Paul indicates in his letters to Philemon and Colossae that Luke was with him while under house arrest in Rome.

Marks of Jewish Identity

The first indicator of Jewish identity is Luke's own testimony. Luke begins his narrative with this declaration, "Inasmuch as many have undertaken to compile an account of the things accomplished among us" (Luke 1:1). Luke does not say "among the Jews" or "in Israel," so he clearly means "us" as including himself as among those with whom Yeshua conducted his ministry. Luke's emphasis on research is to provide a more complete story of Yeshua than what might have been told from just his own personal experience. This is also true of Matthew who could not have been present for the nativity, but we know was Jewish.

The second indicator of Jewish identity is that according to various church fathers (Hippolytus, Dorotheus and Epiphanius) Luke was one of the Seventy disciples sent out by Yeshua (Luke 10:1). This tradition is repeated in the medieval Nestorian book The Book of the Bee, Chap. XLIX.) Christian commentators regard this tradition as a "legend." Of course, Christian scholars tend to pick and choose the portions of patristic writings they consider genuine, so their discounting the tradition of Luke's inclusion in the Seventy suggests rejection because of prejudice, not from any contrary evidence.

As for the mission of the Seventy it is highly unlikely that Yeshua would have chosen any Gentiles for this early mission, since the charge to the Seventy was identical to the mission given to the Twelve (Matt 10). The mission was expressly directed to the lost house of Israel (Matt 10:5-6) and the Seventy were sent to cities in which Yeshua planned to minister (Luke 10:1). There is no record of Yeshua going into any Gentile city. It is noteworthy that Luke is the only one to mention the mission of the Seventy.

Luke coined the term for Greek-speaking Jews, Hellēnistēs, which occurs in Acts 6:1; 9:29 and 11:20. David Flusser (1917-2000), professor of Early Christianity and Judaism of the Second Temple Period at Hebrew University of Jerusalem, used the term "Hellenized" to describe these Greek-speaking Jews. The "Hellenized Jews" were zealous for the Temple and Torah and certain circles of them were greatly influenced by the Essenes (Flusser 75). The Hellenized Jews preferred Greek as their primary language and the Greek translation of the Torah (Septuagint) for synagogue services. In contrast, "Hellenistic Jews" practiced or held to the principles of Greek culture and philosophy.

(NOTE: Epaphras and Demas would also have been Hellenized Jews. Nothing is said of their of their background and merely having Greek names does not mean they were Gentiles. Only consider that Peter, Andrew and Philip were all Hebraic Jews with Greek names. Demas is also included in the list of the Seventy by Hippolytus with the added note that he became a priest of idols.)

The Literary Hebraist

The fourth indicator of Jewish identity is the Hebrew character of Luke's writing style. Norval Geldenhuys offers this observation of the original language of Luke's narrative.

"Something very striking in Luke's language and style is his literary versatility. We find, for instance that he commences his Gospel with an accurately balanced sentence written in irreproachable, pure, literary Greek. After the preface, however, in the description of the nativities of John and Jesus he immediately switches over to a Hebraistically tinted language corresponding to that of the Septuagint, the Greek translation of the Old Testament. This transition from the one kind of style to the other shows that Luke is consciously an artist. He could, had he chosen have retained throughout the distinguished literary style with which he had commenced. But in order to adapt his style better to the nature of the events that had taken place in a Jewish environment, he changes to a more Hebraistic diction in the description of such events…. In his descriptions of stories with a Jewish background Luke is Semitising throughout." (Geldenhuys 36-37).

While Geldenhuys recognizes Luke's Hebraic writing style, it leaves unanswered as to exactly how this was accomplished if Luke was a Gentile. How does Luke switch to an "Hebraistic diction" unless he has intimate knowledge of Hebrew. How did he gain such knowledge, considering that Hebrew is a complex language and difficult to learn. Either he knew Hebrew because of exposure to it from his youth or God gave him the gift of languages.

Dr. Robert Lindsey in his book Jesus Rabbi & Lord demonstrated that Luke's narrative can be easily translated from the Greek back into Hebrew with no difficulty. Would being a proselyte provide sufficient explanation of Luke's proficiency with Hebrew? Luke's Hebraistic diction is not just a stilted word-for-word translation of an original Hebrew text, but a skilled grasp of the idiosyncrasies of Hebrew idioms, which is not always translated correctly in Gentile Bibles. Surely, only a Jew could have such proficiency, but moreover a Hellenized Jew, which gave him proficiency in Greek as well.

Composition

Culture

Jewish culture dominates the landscape of Luke's narrative. While there are mentions of various non-Jewish cultures, they only occur as they impact the main Israelite characters of Yeshua's story. Christian scholarly works tend to minimize this Jewish characteristic by substituting references such as "biblical culture" or "Mediterranean culture." The God of the Bible is concerned with life in Israel and among His people. References to the Jewish identity of the principal characters in the narratives abound. These include many references to Jewish lineage, sectarian groups, the Temple, synagogues, the religious calendar and distinctive religious practices.

Luke's narrative seems particularly interested in women, children, the sick, the poor, tax collectors, sinners and Gentiles. Levine (96) points out that regarding Jewish women Luke's anecdotes reveal that they had freedom of travel (1:39; 8:2-3; 23:27, 55-56), had access to their own funds (7:37; 8:3; 15:8; 21:2), undertook patronage roles (8:1-3), owned homes (1:56; 10:38), and appeared in the Temple and synagogues (2:22, 36-37, 41-50; 13:10-17).

The presentation of Judaism is complex. A number of Jews are presented as righteous because of their character and piety (1:6, 27-28, 38; 2:21-25, 36-37; 13:16; 19:9; 23:50). Yeshua himself is seen as faithful in observing the Sabbath and Torah prescribed festivals (2:42; 4:16, 44; 13:10). Conversely, Yeshua criticizes the legalistic orthodoxy of certain Pharisees (6:2-5; 7:30; 11:39-44; 18:9-14) and Sadducees (10:29-37; 11:46-52; 20:27, 46-47). In contrast the conduct of a Roman centurion (7:2-4) and Samaritans (10:30-35; 17:12-18) are presented in a positive light.

Circa

Based on the dating of Acts in the early sixties, the writing of Yeshua's biography could have begun within the second decade after Pentecost. Although liberal Christian scholars dated Luke toward the end of the first century, internal evidence clearly points to a pre-70 date.

• Jewish believers are Torah-observant, including attending synagogue services on the Sabbath, going to the Temple, offering sacrifices, and observing the pilgrim festivals.

• The theological controversies in the book clearly fit within the Jewish cultural context prior to A.D. 70.

• The detailed patrilineal genealogy of Luke 3:23-38 was based on public records maintained at the temple in Jerusalem. This vital information was lost when the temple was destroyed in A.D. 70.

• Yeshua prophesied the destruction of the temple and Jerusalem (Luke 21:20-24), yet there is no reference to the fall of the city in A.D. 70. The many mentions of Jerusalem (31 times) indicates the continued presence of the city.

• The presence of Sadducees (23:8). The Sadducees ceased to exist after the destruction of the Temple.

Irenaeus (A.D. 120-202) reported the order of publication of the official inspired biographies of Yeshua:

"2. Matthew published his Gospel among the Hebrews in their own language, while Peter and Paul were preaching and founding the church in Rome. 3. After their departure Mark, the disciple and interpreter of Peter, also transmitted to us in writing those things which Peter had preached; and Luke, the attendant of Paul, recorded in a book the Gospel which Paul had declared. 4. Afterwards John, the disciple of the Lord, who also reclined on his bosom, published his Gospel, while staying at Ephesus in Asia." (Eusebius, Church History, Book V, §8)

Clement of Alexandria (A.D. 150-215) also addressed the matter of sequence:

"6. The Gospels containing the genealogies, he says, were written first. The Gospel according to Mark had this occasion. As Peter had preached the Word publicly at Rome, and declared the Gospel by the Spirit, many who were present requested that Mark, who had followed him for a long time and remembered his sayings, should write them out. And having composed the Gospel he gave it to those who had requested it. 7. When Peter learned of this, he neither directly forbade nor encouraged it. But, last of all, John, perceiving that the external facts had been made plain in the Gospel, being urged by his friends, and inspired by the Spirit, composed a spiritual Gospel." (Eusebius, Book VI, §14.6-7)

Luke 1:2 implies that at least two of the Yeshua narratives, i.e. Matthew and Mark, were completed before his work. In regard to the dating reference of Irenaeus, Edmundson agrees with the report of early church fathers that Mark went with Peter to Rome in 42 and while there published his Gospel in 45 (49, 56). Robinson concurs with the early publication of the first two narratives, giving the earliest date for Matthew as 40 and the earliest date for Mark as 45 (316).

John Chrysostom (A.D. 347-407) in his commentary on Acts 1:1 repeated the report of Irenaeus that the content of Luke's narrative of Yeshua was the Gospel which Paul declared (citing 1Cor 15:5; 2Cor 8:18). According to the church father Jerome (A.D. 347–420) Luke wrote his Gospel in Achaia, perhaps at Corinth (Prefaces to the Commentaries). Paul ministered in Achaia in 51-53 (Acts 18:1-11) and 56-57 (Acts 19:21; 20:1-3), but Luke was only with Paul in his second visit. Robinson suggests a date for publication of Luke's narrative about A.D. 57-60 (316).

Correspondent

Luke addresses his Yeshua biography to an individual named Theophilus (Grk. Theophilos, "friend of God"). Luke applies to him the title "most excellent" (Grk. kratistos). The honorary title would indicate that Theophilus was of some prominence. Many scholars believe Theophilus was a Greek or Gentile in high social and/or political standing, perhaps a patron of the Yeshua movement (Levine 97). Gilbert suggests that Theophilus might have been Luke's benefactor (199). Stern suggests that Theophilus was probably an upper-class Greek (103). However, Theophilus could easily have been a Jew, since many Jews had Greek names (e.g., Peter, Philip, Andrew, Thomas and the Jewish friends and relatives of Paul listed in Romans 16).

Scholars ignore the fact that there was a famous Jew by the name of Theophilus who served as high priest A.D. 37-41 and is mentioned by Josephus (Ant. XVII, 4:2; XVIII, 5:3; XIX, 6:2; XX, 9:7) (Jeremias 194, 378). It's not impossible that the Theophilus to whom Luke wrote was that high priest or a relative. Also, including Theophilus in the use of "us" in Luke 1:1-2 would support Theophilus being Jewish. The verb "having been taught" (Grk. katēcheō, 'to instruct orally') in Luke 1:4 implies that Theophilus had been introduced to the Messianic proclamation on a prior occasion. Many priests had embraced Yeshua as Messiah and Savior (Acts 6:7).

There is no reason to assume that Theophilus was unsaved. This same verb is used of Apollos who had some teaching about the Messiah before he went to Ephesus, but Priscilla and Aquila took him aside and explain the truth more accurately (Acts 18:24-26). Luke's task was to explain the truth about Yeshua more accurately to Theophilus.

Construction

Luke is the third longest narrative in the Besekh with 24 chapters and 1151 verses. The Greek of the Luke's narrative is a polished Jewish Greek, containing many Hebrew idioms. He often follows rules of Hebrew grammar, such as beginning many verses with either a conjunction or a verb or both. Luke is noted for a significant number of words (221 to be exact) that are not found in any other apostolic writing (Barnes). These are called hapax legomena, a Latin expression meaning words that occur only once in a given literary work. The unique words are found in other Jewish literature, such as the LXX, Josephus, Philo and the Apocrypha, which indicates Luke's facility with the Greek language and knowledge of ancient literature.

An evidence of Luke's authorship is that the number of words which occur in the Gospel and Acts and nowhere else in the Besekh is estimated at 750 or 851; of which 26 occur in quotations from the LXX (Plummer lii). As in other books of the apostolic writings Luke contains many quotations and allusions to passages of the Tanakh. All direct quotations are from the Septuagint (LXX), the Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures. See a compilation here. Luke's facility with the LXX is another mark of Jewish identity, since it was widely read in Diaspora synagogues.

Character

In terms of classification Luke is considered one of the three Synoptic Narratives (the word "synoptic" means "same viewpoint"), since many of the same incidents are reported in two or three of them, often in similar or even identical language. Scholars have attempted to explain the differences and similarities in these narratives, often by postulating that one writer copied from another, or, that two or all three of them had access to the same sources. Luke supposedly utilized material found in Mark's narrative, as well as an independent source known as Quelle ("source") or simply "Q" (Neale 140). For a rebuttal of this proposal see my article The So-Called Synoptic Problem.

Luke's narrative obviously contains two types of material, information gleaned from research and information from his own personal experience. Some of the research is obvious. His detailed nativity narrative could only have been developed by interviewing the principal participants in the births of the Messenger and the Messiah. The verbal clause "having closely followed all things from the first" (1:3) would support the patristic claim that Luke himself was a follower of Yeshua, perhaps initially one of the crowd, but later as a believer. He was therefore an eyewitness of many of the events he records (e.g. Luke 9:52-56; 10:1-20; 12:1−18:14; 19:1-27, 39-44).

Luke asserts that not only was his narrative a factual recitation of history, but it was also an orderly account, that is, he presents the narrative of events in sequence. In Jewish literature chronology is not always as important as the message. In this regard the arrangement of content in the apostolic narratives could be considered more topical than chronological. The apostolic narratives are in complete agreement in recounting the sequence of the major events of Yeshua's life: his birth, immersion, temptation, ministry, passion, death, resurrection and then ascension.

Yet a closer comparison of the order of their accounts reveals several points at which they differ over the sequence of specific actions of Yeshua. Luke is the only one to insist that the progression of events in his narrative is strictly chronological.

Contents

Narrative Outline

Part One: The Introduction of the Messiah (1:1−4:13)

· Background of Luke's narrative, 1:1-4.

· Events preceding Messiah's birth, 1:5-56.

· Events accompanying Messiah's birth, 1:57−2:38.

· Events during Messiah's childhood, 2:39-52.

· Events preceding Messiah's presentation, 3:1−4:13.

Part Two: The Ministry of the Messiah (4:14−9:50)

· The presentation of Messiah, 4:14-30.

· Demonstration of Messiah's powers, 4:31−5:28.

· Explanation of Messiah's ministry, 5:29−6:49.

· Expansion of Messiah's ministry, 7:1−9:50.

Part Three: The Rejection of the Messiah (9:51−19:27)

· Increasing opposition, 9:51-11:54.

· Instruction in view of Messiah's rejection, 12:1−19:27.

Part Four: Suffering and Victory of the Messiah (19:28-24:53)

· The last week of Messiah, 19:28−23:56.

· Victory of Messiah, 24:1-53.

Unique Elements

Almost half the content of Luke is not found in the other Yeshua narratives. These are the most distinctive features.

● Introduced with a purpose statement (1:1-4).

● Addressed to an individual, Theophilus (1:3).

● Mention of non-Jewish rulers: Caesar Augustus (2:1), Quirinius, Procurator (2:2), Caesar Tiberius (3:1), and Pontius Pilate, Procurator (3:1).

● Mention of Jewish rulers: King Herod the Great (1:4), Herod Antipas (3:1), Philip the Tetrarch (3:1), Lysanias the tetrarch (3:1), Annas, high priest (3:2) and Caiaphas, high priest (3:2).

● Date information, 1:5; 2:1; 3:1-2.

● Birth narrative of Yochanan the Immerser (1:5-25, 57-80).

● Yeshua's birth in Bethlehem (2:1-20).

● Circumcision and dedication of infant Yeshua (Luke 2:21-24).

● Yeshua in the Temple at age 12 (2:41-52).

● The genealogy of Yeshua to Adam (Luke 3:23-38).

● Bible characters only in Luke: Zechariah and Elizabeth (1:5), Gabriel (1:19), Simeon (2:25), Anna (2:36), Joanna (8:3), Susanna (8:3), poor man Lazarus (16:20), Zaccheus (19:2) and Cleopas (24:18).

● Seventy disciples sent out (10:1-12).

● Empowerment of the Holy Spirit: only one of the Yeshua narratives that speaks of characters being empowered or filled with the Spirit; Yochanan the Immerser (1:15), Miriam (1:35), Elizabeth (1:41), Zechariah (1:67), Simeon (2:25-26), and Yeshua himself (4:1).

● Miracles: catch of fish (5:1-11); raising of widow son (7:11-17); healing of woman with spirit of infirmity (13:10-17); healing of man with dropsy (14:1-6); healing of ten lepers (17:11-19).

● Stories of women: 12 references to women that were connected to the story of Yeshua (3 of which are in the opening chapters) and seven stories of women as good examples.

● Parables: good Samaritan (10:25-37); lost coin (15:8-10); prodigal son (15:11-32); rich man and Lazarus (16:19-31); Pharisee and tax-collector (18:9-14).

● Prophecies of Yeshua: foreign army surrounding Jerusalem (19:42-44; 21:20); "great" earthquakes, threats from interstellar space and roaring of the sea and the waves in the last days (21:11, 25).

● Incidents during the passion and resurrection: Yeshua before Herod Antipas (23:6-12); daughters of Jerusalem weeping (23:27-31); repentance of criminal on the cross (23:40-42); Yeshua's promise of Paradise that day (Luke 23:43); Yeshua saying, "Father, into your hand I commit my spirit" (23:46); Yeshua's appearance to disciples on the road to Emmaus (24:13-49); and Yeshua's ascension (24:50-53).

● Sections without parallel in the other Yeshua narratives: 1:5-80; 2:1-39, 41-52; 4:16-30; 9:51−10:20; 10:25−11:13; 11:33−18:14; 19:1-27.

● The only biography with a sequel. Although separated in Bibles by the book of John, Luke and Acts are a narrative unity.

Canonicity

Canonicity and authorship are distinct principles, but in the patristic era canonicity and apostolic authorship were viewed as interdependent. In the study of the New Testament canon, scholars note the complete list of 27 books recorded by Athanasius (c.367) in his famous Festal Letter 39. This list begins with the four Gospels. However, a century earlier the New Testament canon as recognized by the Church of Rome was listed in the Muratorian Fragment, which declared that the third Gospel was authored by Luke, the well-known physician. The text of the list itself is traditionally dated to the second half of the second century. In addition, about A.D. 250 Origen of Alexandria produced a complete list of the 27 books in a Homily 7 on Joshua, which included Luke as the author of the Gospel and Acts.

Conclusion

This brief survey of Luke is intended to introduce the Bible reader to a different perspective than commonly found in Christian commentaries. Luke is a Jewish book, written by a Jew for a Jew, telling the story of the Jewish Messiah. Only by allowing this book to be what the Luke intended in his own culture first can the reader properly interpret and apply this Scripture in our lives and in our culture.

Works Cited

Barnes: Mark Barnes, List of New Testament Hapax Legomena. Logos Bible Software Forum, 2013.

Brickner: Avi Brickner, The Jewishness of the New Testament. Jews for Jesus, January 1987 Newsletter. <accessed 6 October 2014>

CJSB: The Complete Jewish Study Bible. Hendrickson Publishers, 2016.

Dorotheus: Dorotheus (255-362), Bishop of Tyre, The Choosing of the Seventy Holy Apostles. Online.

Epiphanius: Epiphanius of Salamis (310-403), Panarion, Book II & III. Online.

Eusebius: Eusebius (c. AD 263 – 339), Church History

Flusser: David Flusser, Jewish Sources in Early Christianity, Adama Books, 1987.

Geldenhuys: Norval Geldenhuys, Commentary on the Gospel of Luke. William B. Eerdmans Pub. Co., 1951.

Gilbert: Gary Gilbert, Annotations on "The Acts of the Apostles," Jewish Annotated New Testament, eds. Amy-Jill Levine and Marc Brettler. Oxford University Press, 2011.

HBD: Holman Bible Dictionary. Broadman and Holman Publishers, 1991.

Hippolytus: Hippolytus of Rome (170-236), On the Seventy Apostles. Online.

ISBE: International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. Edited by James Orr, published in 1939 by Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Co. Website HTML, 2011. Online.

Jeremias: Joichim Jeremias, Jerusalem in the Time of Jesus. Fortress Press, 1975.

Jones: Ron Jones, The Manuscript Evidence of the New Testament Gospels: Affirmation of the Authorship of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. Titus Institute, 2014. Online.

Josephus: Yosef ben Matityahu, The Works of Flavius Josephus (c. 75–99 A.D.), trans. William Whiston (1737). Online. [Jewish historian]

Levine: Amy-Jill Levine, Annotations on "The Gospel According to Luke," Jewish Annotated New Testament, eds. Amy-Jill Levine and Marc Brettler. Oxford University Press, 2011.

Lindsey: Robert L. Lindsey, Jesus Rabbi & Lord: The Hebrew Story of Jesus Behind Our Gospels. Cornerstone Publishing, 1990. 3rd ed. CreateSpace, 2017.

NIBD: Nelson's Illustrated Dictionary of the Bible. Herbert Lockyer, ed. Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1986.

Plummer: Alfred Plummer (1841-1926), A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel According to S. Luke. 5th edition. T&T Clark, 1922. Online.

Robinson: John A.T. Robinson, Redating the New Testament. SCM Press, 1976. Online.

Shulam: Joseph Shulam and Hilary Le Cornu, The Jewish Roots of Acts. 2 vols. Netivyah Bible Instruction Ministry, 2011.

Stern: David Stern, Jewish New Testament Commentary, Jewish New Testament Publications, 1996.

Tarn & Griffith: Sir William Tarn and G.T. Griffith, Hellenistic Civilization. 3^rd Edition. Edward Arnold Publishers, Ltd., 1952.

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