The Narrative of Luke

Chapter 16

Blaine Robison, M.A.

Published 15 July 2025; Revised 13 September 2025

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Scripture Text: The Scripture text used in this commentary is prepared by Blaine Robison and based on the Nestle-Aland Greek New Testament. The essentially literal translation seeks to reflect the Jewish character of the author and writing. Scripture quotations may be taken from different Bible versions. Click here for Abbreviations of Bible Versions. Quotations marked with the initials "BR" indicate the translation of the commentary author.

Sources: Bibliographic data for works cited may be found at the end of the chapter commentary. Works without page numbers are cited ad loc. Important early Jewish sources include the following:

● DSS: the Dead Sea Scrolls, a collection of Jewish manuscripts of Scripture and sectarian documents found in the Qumran caves. Most of the Qumran MSS belong to the last three centuries B.C. and the first century A.D. Online: DSS Bible; Vermes.

● LXX: The abbreviation "LXX" ("70") stands for the Septuagint, the Jewish translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, in use among Jews by the mid-2nd century B.C. Online. The LXX also included the Apocrypha, Jewish works produced from 400 B.C. to A.D. 1. Online.

● Josephus: The Works of Flavius Josephus (c. 75–99 A.D.), Jewish historian, trans. William Whiston (1737). Online.

● Philo: Works by Philo of Alexandria, the Jewish philosopher (20 B.C.─A.D. 50), consisting of 45 monographs. Online.

● Targums: Aramaic translation of Hebrew Scripture with commentary: Targum Onkelos (A.D. 80-120), and Targum Jonathan (A.D. 150-250). Index of Targum texts.

● Talmud: References to the Talmud are from the Soncino Babylonian Talmud (1948); found at Halakhah.com. The Talmud incorporates the Mishnah, Jewish laws (A.D. 180-220) and the Gemara, legal analysis (A.D. 220-500). Click here for Talmud Abbreviations.

Syntax: Unless otherwise noted definition of Greek words is from F.W. Danker, The Concise Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament (2009), and definition of Hebrew words is from The New Brown, Driver, Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon (1981), abbreviated as "BDB." See the Greek Guide for the meaning of grammar abbreviations.

Special Terms: In order to emphasize the Hebrew and Jewish nature of Scripture I use the terms Yeshua (Jesus), Messiah (Christ), ADONAI (for YHVH), Torah (Pentateuch, Law), Tanakh (Old Testament), and Besekh (New Testament).

Part Three: The Mission of the Messiah (9:51−19:27)

Chapter Summary

Chapter 16 continues the narrative of a lengthy block of teaching content (14:25−17:10) most of which is not found in the other apostolic narratives. After addressing a large crowd (14:25) and then a group of Pharisees and scribes (15:2-3), Yeshua resumes teaching his disciples. He begins by telling a parable about an unrighteous property steward, and then warns of the danger of giving wealth priority over devotion to God. He especially stresses the continuing authority of the written Torah and applies the commandment of Torah in declaring God's will for the marriage relationship, offering an oblique criticism of Herod Antipas. The chapter closes with the parable of the rich man and the beggar Lazarus with a message about eternal reward and punishment.

Chapter Outline

Parable: The Dishonest Steward, 16:1-8

Fiduciary Fidelity, 16:9-13

Torah Principles Applied, 16:14-18

Parable: The Rich Man and Lazarus, 16:19-31

Setting

Santala (121) locates Luke 14:1−17:10 in the vicinity of Bethabara (=Bethany beyond the Jordan, John 1:28) in southern Perea after the conclusion of Hanukkah and departure from Jerusalem (Luke 13:34; John 10:40).

Date: Winter (Jan.-Feb.)−Spring (March), A.D. 30

The Dishonest Steward, 16:1-8

1 Now he was saying also to the disciples, "There was a certain rich man who had a steward, and this steward was accused to him that he was squandering his possessions.

Now: Grk. de, conj. used to indicate (1) a contrast to something preceding, "but;" (2) a transition in subject matter, "now, then;" or (3) a connective to continue a thought, "and, also," sometimes with emphasis, "indeed," "moreover" (Thayer). The second usage applies here. The conjunction emphasizes that whereas Yeshua had been speaking to the Pharisees he now redirects his focus. he was saying: Grk. legō, impf., to make a statement or utterance, whether oral or in written form, here the former. The focus of the verb may be declarative, interrogative or imperative; answer, ask, declare, say, speak, tell.

also: Grk. kai, conj. that marks a connection or addition of words or numbers ('and, also'), as well as the introduction of clauses or sentences, sometimes with emphasis ('certainly, even, indeed, namely'). See my note on the significance of conjunctions in the Besekh. to: Grk. pros, prep., lit. "near or facing" (DM 110), to, towards, with. Here the preposition denotes speaking face to face. the disciples: pl. of Grk. ho mathētēs (from manthanō, to learn), one who learns through instruction from a teacher; adherent, learner, pupil, disciple. In the Besekh the noun occurs only in the apostolic narratives, most often for followers of Yeshua of which there were many (including women).

Discipleship means more than being a believer. Thus, the first condition of being a disciple is relegating devotion to family and self to second place as he previously exhorted two men who placed family before discipleship (Luke 9:59-62). Yeshua correctly observed that only by loving God first would the person be able to fulfill the expectation of being a disciple. See my article The Call of Discipleship.

There was: Grk. eimi, impf., a function word used in a wide variety of grammatical constructions, primarily to declare a state of existence, whether in the past ('was, were'), present ('are, is') or future ('will be'), often to unite a subject and predicate. a certain: Grk. tis, indefinite pronoun, a certain one, some one, any one. This pronoun is often used to distinguish someone or something of consequence in contrast to others. rich: Grk. plousios, adj., possessing in abundance; rich, wealthy. man: Grk. anthrōpos, human being, man or mankind. The noun refers here to an adult male. Plummer suggests that the rich man lived in the town while the steward managed the estate, but the parable does not confirm this arrangement.

who: Grk. hos, relative pronoun used to specify or give significance to the mention of a person, thing, or piece of information in the text; who, which, what, that. had: Grk. echō, impf., to have, hold or possess with a wide range of application. a steward: Grk. oikonomos, one who takes care of business affairs, especially involving accounts in a large household, here one responsible for an estate and its financial structure; manager, steward. The steward is an employee, not a slave. The term is found in the LXX of men who served as household managers of rulers (1Kgs 4:6; 16:9; 18:3; 2Kgs 18:18, 37; 1Chr 29:6; Esth 1:8; cf. Luke 12:42).

Lightfoot suggests that this story is drawn from the custom of letting out fields devoted to agriculture, which is detailed in the Mishnah, Demai, Chapter Six. The Jewish law describes circumstances in which a field is let by its owner to some tenant upon the condition that he pay a portion of the products of the ground as the rental fee, whether grain or olive oil, according as is agreed between them as to the proportion and quantity. Against this proposal is the lack of any terms that refer to agricultural tenancy.

and this steward: Grk. houtos, demonstrative pronoun signifying a person, thing or action set forth in narrative; lit. "this one." was accused: Grk. diaballō, aor. pass., to bring charges against, accuse. The verb occurs only here in the Besekh. Plummer suggests the choice of the verb, being related to the noun diabolos ("accuser, slanderer, Devil"), implies accusing behind a person's back (cf. Dan 3:8; 6:24). to him: Grk. autos, an intensive personal pronoun, often used to distinguish a person or thing in contrast to another, or to give him/her/it prominence. The pronoun may mean (1) self, (2) he, she, it, or (3) the same. The second meaning applies here in reference to the rich man.

Someone brought the complaint to the rich man, perhaps another employee. That the accusations were well-founded in this case is evident from the course of events (Geldenhuys). The steward never denies the accusation. that: Grk. hōs, adv. with the primary function of connecting narrative components, and used here with a focus on a subjective perspective. he was squandering: Grk. diaskorpizō, pres. part., to scatter or disperse, here in the extended sense of squandering or wasting. his: Grk. autos. possessions: Grk. huparchō, pl. pres. part., to function or be in a state as determined by circumstance; to be, to exist or to possess. The participle refers to tangible assets of the estate.

Geldenhuys notes that the owner apparently did not suspect the steward of conscious dishonesty, but thought that he had merely been irresponsible and extravagant in his management. The verbal clause does not specifically describe embezzlement. Otherwise, the steward would have been arrested and charged with criminal theft.

2 And having summoned him he said to him, 'What is this I hear about you? Turn in the account of your stewardship, for you are not able any longer to manage.'

And: Grk. kai, conj. having summoned: Grk. phōneō, aor. part., to call vocally, used here of calling to oneself; summon. Many versions translate the verb as "called," but this is not a social invitation. him: Grk. autos, an intensive personal pronoun, often used to distinguish a person or thing in contrast to another, or to give him/her/it prominence. The pronoun may mean (1) self, (2) he, she, it, or (3) the same. The second meaning applies here in reference to the steward mentioned in the previous verse.

he said: Grk. legō, aor., to make a statement or utterance, whether oral or in written form, here the former. The focus of the verb may be declarative, interrogative or imperative; answer, ask, declare, say, speak, tell. The subject of the verb is the rich man, which some versions insert into the translation of the verb. to him: Grk. autos. What is: Grk. tís, interrogative pronoun indicating interest in establishing something definite; who, which, what, why. this: Grk. houtos, demonstrative pronoun signifying a person, thing or action set forth in narrative; this.

I hear: Grk. akouō, pres., to hear aurally or listen, here meaning to receive information aurally. Plummer favors rendering the question as "Why am I hearing this?" about: Grk. peri, prep. with an orientational aspect relating to being near or having to do with something; about, concerning. you: Grk. su, second person pronoun. The rich man does not reveal the source of the adverse report.

Turn in: Grk. apodidōmi (from apo, "from" and didōmi, "give"), aor. imp., with the basic idea of reciprocity the verb may mean (1) give back, repay, return, or restore; or (2) give or render as due. The first meaning applies here with the sense of returning. Most versions have "Give," which may be misleading. Some versions have "Turn in" (AMPC, CJB, ESV, GNT, NET, RSV). Mounce has "Hand over." the account: Grk. ho logos , normally a vocalized expression of the mind. Here the term is used in a commercial sense of a written account or statement of financial transactions. Logos is used elsewhere in the Besekh of giving an account that anticipates a negative outcome (Matt 12:36; Acts 19:40; Rom 14:12; 1Pet 4:5).

of your: Grk. su. stewardship: Grk. oikonomia, taking care of business affairs; administration, stewardship. In Luke 12:42 the oikonomos (steward) was a household manager, overseeing the work of servants. As indicated by the following verses the steward of this parable is a man who manages the rich man's property or financial affairs and in this capacity acts as an agent of the rich man. Plummer notes that the phrase "the account of your stewardship" is commonly understood of the final account, to prepare for the surrender of the stewardship.

for: Grk. gar, conj., a contraction of ge ("yet") and ara ("then"), and in a broad sense means "certainly it follows that;" for. The conjunction is used to express cause, explanation, inference or continuation as shaped by the preceding statement. you are not: Grk. ou, adv., a particle used in an unqualified denial or negation; no, not. able: Grk. dunamai, pres. mid., to be able, have power, whether by virtue of one's own ability and resources, or of a state of mind, or through favorable circumstances, or by permission of law or custom (Thayer). The verb is used here regarding the power associated with an office.

any longer: Grk. eti, adv. expressing continuance of an action; yet, still, further, longer (Mounce). to manage: Grk. oikonomeō, pres. inf., to manage as steward; manage, administer. The steward, knowing that he cannot disprove the charges, regards this demand for a reckoning as equivalent to dismissal. The verb occurs only here in the Besekh.

3 And the steward said within himself, 'What shall I do, because my master is taking the stewardship from me? I am not able to dig; I am ashamed to beg.

And: Grk. de, conj. the steward: Grk. ho oikonomos. See verse 1 above. said: Grk. legō, aor. within: Grk. en, prep., with the root meaning of "within," generally marks position; among, at, in, on or with (DM 105). himself: Grk. heautou, reflexive pronoun of the third person. Self-talk is a common occurrence in Scripture (cf. Gen 27:41; 38:11; 1Sam 18:11; 20:26; 27:1; 2Kgs 20:19; Esth 6:6; Ps 10:13; 42:5; 43:5; 103:1-2; 104:1; 146:1; Jer 4:19; Luke 7:39; 18:4). The steward then considers an important question in examining his options.

What: Grk. tís, interrogative pronoun. See the previous verse. shall I do: Grk. poieō, aor. subj., a verb of physical action that may refer to (1) producing something material; make, construct, produce, create; or (2) to be active in bringing about a state of condition; do, act, perform, work. The second meaning applies here. because: Grk. hoti, conj., a versatile particle used primarily to introduce clauses that provide explanations, reasons, or content; for, that, because, since. Here the conjunction indicates causality with an inferential aspect; for, because, inasmuch as.

my: Grk. egō, first person pronoun. master: Grk. ho kurios may mean either (1) one in control through possession,' and therefore owner or master; or (2) one esteemed for authority or high status, thus lord or master. The first meaning applies here. In this setting the title kurios is used of the rich man because he has authority over the steward, determining and supervising his work. In modern terms the reference "my master" equals "my boss" or "my employer."

is taking: Grk. aphaireō, pres. mid., cause to be no longer there; to take away, remove, cut off. The present tense is used here to indicate an anticipated future event or an action purposed. the stewardship: Grk. ho oikonomia. See the previous verse. from: Grk. apo, prep. used generally as a marker of either separation or origin, here the former. me: Grk. egō. The steward now considers two options for making money, neither of which is desirable.

I am not: Grk. ou, adv. See the previous verse. able: Grk. ischuō, pres., to have the capacity for accomplishing; have power or strength, be able. to dig: Grk. skaptō, pres. inf., to dig or excavate in the ground, whether in construction (Luke 6:48) or in horticulture (Luke 13:8), herein probably the latter. The verb occurs only in Luke. As a steward he had led a sedentary life and thus had no experience in work that required physical exertion.

I am ashamed: Grk. aischunō, pres. mid., to have a feeling of shame; be ashamed, be disgraced. to beg: Grk. epaiteō, pres. inf., to ask for alms, beg. Begging for money was not approved in Jewish culture. The first clear criticism of begging in Jewish literature is found in Sirach 40:28, "My son, do not lead the life of a beggar; it is better to die than to beg." Professional beggars were a despised class among the Hebrews, because they were physically able to work. Jewish communities were forbidden to support the professional beggar from the general charity fund (Baba Bathra 9a).

4 I know what I will do, so that when I have been removed from the stewardship people will welcome me into their homes.'

I know: Grk. ginōskō, aor., to know, including (1) to be in receipt of information; (2) form a judgment or draw a conclusion; or (3) have a personal relationship involving recognition of another's identity or value. The second meaning applies here. what: Grk. Grk. tís, interrogative pronoun. See verse 2 above. I will do: Grk. poieō, aor. subj. See the previous verse. The steward rejects the two options considered in the previous verse.

so that: Grk. hina, conj. used to add an idea that completes an intention expressed; in order that, so that. when: Grk. hotan, temporal marker; when, whenever; "at the time when the condition is met" (HELPS). The time is not certain but he knows what is coming. I have been removed: Grk. methistēmi, aor. pass. subj., to cause to move from a place, position or situation, here from a responsible position; dismiss, remove. from: Grk. ek, prep. used to denote derivation or separation in relation to something with which there has been a close connection, here the latter; by, out of, out from among, away from. the stewardship: Grk. ho oikonomia. See verse 2 above. Termination is viewed as inevitable.

people will welcome: Grk. dechomai, aor. mid. subj., 3p-pl., to take into one's hands, receive or welcome, frequently with the connotation of enthusiastic acceptance. The subject of the verb is the debtors mentioned in the next verse. me: Grk. egō, first person pronoun. into: Grk. eis, prep. that focuses on entrance, frequently in relation to a direction toward a goal or place and consequent arrival; for, into, to, unto. their: pl. of Grk. heautou, reflexive pronoun of the third person. homes: pl. of Grk. ho oikos may mean a structure for habitation or persons inhabiting a house, here the former.

The implication may be the rich man provided lodging for the steward and the loss of the job would also mean loss of a place to live. Thus, by ingratiating himself to others he would be able to have a roof over his head.

5 And having summoned each one of the debtors of his master, he was saying to the first, 'How much do you owe my master?'

And: Grk. kai, conj. having summoned: proskaleō, aor. part., to call, invite or summon to one's self or one's presence. each: Grk. hekastos, adj. in reference to an individual person or thing; each, every, every one. one: Grk. heis, adj., the number one. of the debtors: pl. of Grk. chreopheiletēs (from chreos, "debt" and opheiletēs, a loan-ower), one who is in debt or under financial obligation to another. The noun occurs only in Luke (also Luke 7:41). The total number of debtors is not revealed, but two are mentioned for the sake of the story. of his: Grk. heautou, reflexive pronoun. The pronoun emphasizes the steward's subordinate role. master: Grk. ho kurios. See verse 3 above.

Edersheim suggests the indebtedness could have been incurred as rent in kind, or as the price of produce purchased (IV:18, 660). Jeremias suggests that the debtors were either tenants who were to deliver a specified portion of the yield of their land in lieu of rent, or wholesale merchants who have given promissory notes for goods received (181). Geldenhuys suggests that the debt was in the nature of loans or goods bought on credit. A likely scenario is that the debtors were farmers who borrowed money to buy land or seed for planting with an agreement to repay the loan in kind from the harvest (cf. Matt 21:33-34; Mark 12:1-2; Luke 20:9-10).

he was saying: Grk. legō, impf. to the first: Grk. ho prōtos, adj., may indicate (1) having primary position in a sequence; first, earlier, earliest; or (2) standing out in significance or importance; first, foremost, prominent. The first meaning is intended here. How much: Grk. posos, interrogative pronoun, how much, how great, how many. do you owe: Grk. opheilō, pres., to be under a prescribed obligation, to have a duty or to owe someone. my: Grk. egō, first person pronoun. master: Grk. ho kurios. This may seem an odd question to ask, since it is the steward's job to know what was owed. Yet, it is a clever way to begin a negotiation with the debtors and it puts the debtor on record admitting the amount of debt owed.

6 And the debtor said, 'A hundred baths of oil.' And the steward said to him, 'Take your bill and having sat down quickly write fifty.'

And: Grk. de, conj. the debtor: Grk. ho, definite article, but used here as a demonstrative pronoun to denote the first debtor; lit. "the one." said: Grk. legō, aor. See verse 1 above. A hundred: Grk. hekaton, adj., the numeral one hundred. baths: pl. of Grk. batos, a bath, a liquid measure among the Jews, containing 72 sextarii, that is, between eight and nine gallons. Plummer has 8.75 gallons. The term occurs only here in the Besekh. The Greek term transliterates Aram. bath in Ezra 7:22 where the plural form is used of 100 baths of wine and 100 baths of olive oil. The Aram. bath corresponds to the Heb. bath, first in 1Kings 7:26.

Some versions render the term simply as "measures" (CSB, ESV, KJV, NASU, NET, NKJV), and others with "barrels" (CEV, DRA, EASY, GNT, NLV, PHILLIPS, VOICE), both of which obscures the Jewish nature of the term and the actual quantity. Some versions render the quantity more literally with either 800 gallons (CJB, EXB, GW, ICB, MEV, NOG, NCV, NLT) or 900 gallons (AMPC, CEB, NIV). Geldenhuys says 868 gallons. of oil: Grk. elaion, oil of the olive. The prescribed payment was in kind rather than cash, but it's not clear whether the amount was cumulative of multiple payments or a one-time payment in full.

And: Grk. de. the steward: Grk. ho, definite article, but used here as a demonstrative pronoun to denote the steward; lit. "the one." said: Grk. legō, aor. to him: Grk. autos, personal pronoun. Take: Grk. dechomai, aor. mid. imp. See verse 4 above. your: Grk. su, second person pronoun. bill: Grk. gramma, may mean (1) that which is written, usually of a letter of the alphabet; or (2) a written document. The second meaning is intended here of a written acknowledgement of debt; bill, contract or note. The covenants were kept by the steward; and he now hands to each debtor his written agreement.

and: Grk. kai, conj. having sat down: Grk. kathizō, aor. part., to sit, to take one's seat. quickly: Grk. tacheōs, adv., putting into effect with rapidity; quickly, at once, without delay. write: Grk. graphō, aor. imp., to write or inscribe a document, with focus on the physical act of writing, as well as the expression of thought. Geldenhuys says the command to "write" implies destroying the old bill and writing a new one. fifty: Grk. pentēkonta, adj., the number fifty. From the debtor's point of view the steward had the authority as the rich man's agent to modify the terms of the loan repayment. The debtor would be very happy with the new terms and in so doing the steward curries favor with the debtor.

7 Then he said to another, 'Now how much do you owe?' And he said, 'A hundred kors of wheat.' He said to him, 'Take your bill, and write eighty.'

Then: Grk. epeita, adv. with the idea of addition as a component; thereupon, then. he said: Grk. legō, aor. See verse 1 above. to another: Grk. heteros, adj. adj. used to denote something that is different in kind or nature, highlighting differences rather than similarities; other, another, different, a second. The masculine adjective identifies a second debtor. Now: Grk. de, conj. how much: Grk. posos, interrogative pronoun. See verse 5 above. do you: Grk. su, second person pronoun. owe: Grk. opheilō, pres. See verse 5 above. Again, the question puts the debtor on record admitting to the amount of debt owed.

And: Grk. de. he: Grk. ho, definite article but used here as a demonstrative pronoun; lit. "the one." said: Grk. legō, aor. A hundred: Grk. hekaton, the number one hundred. kors: pl. of Grk. koros, a transliteration of Heb. kor (1Kgs 4:22), a dry measure among Jews between 10 and 12 bushels (HELPS). A bushel contains four pecks, eight gallons, or thirty-two quarts. A hundred kors would equal 1,083 bushels (Geldenhuys). In the LXX kor also translates Heb. chomer, first in Leviticus 27:16, in which a chomer of barley seed equaled 50 shekels of silver. The term occurs only here in the Besekh. of wheat: Grk. sitos, edible grain of any kind, although in the Besekh chiefly wheat is inferred (HELPS).

He said: Grk. legō, pres. The subject of the verb is the steward. to him: Grk. autos, personal pronoun; the debtor. Take: Grk. dechomai, aor. mid. imp. See verse 4 above. your: Grk. su. bill: Grk. ho gramma. See the previous verse. and: Grk. kai, conj. write: Grk. graphō, aor. imp. See the previous verse. Again the command implies destroying the old bill and writing a new one. eighty: Grk. ogdoēkonta, ten times eight or the number eighty. Jeremias says the wheat is said to be equal to the yield of about one hundred acres (181). Compared to the olive oil the difference in the percentage of reduction may be due to the difference in the relative value of the two commodities. The actual value of the reduction in each case has been computed to equal about five hundred denarii.

8 And the master commended the unrighteous steward because he had acted shrewdly. For the sons of this age are more shrewd among their own kind than the sons of light.

And: Grk. kai, conj. the master: Grk. ho kurios. See verse 3 above. The title is used of the steward's rich employer as represented in verse 3 and 5 above. Ellis interprets kurios as referring to Yeshua (198), but acknowledges that use of the title here may be deliberately ambiguous. commended: Grk. epaineō, aor., express high approval; compliment, commend, praise. the unrighteous: Grk. ho adikia (from adikos, "unjust, unrighteous"), may mean (1) the quality of violating God's standard for righteousness; or (2) the act or deed of violating a standard of righteousness. The first meaning applies here. The noun is used here as an adjective. steward: Grk. ho oikonomos. See verse 1 above.

Ellis suggests that adikia is a "technical theological expression," equivalent to Heb. avel, a term used at Qumran to describe the principle and reality of evil in the end time (199). As a virtue righteousness is the fulfillment of the second great commandment, to love one's neighbor as oneself (Lev 19:18; Luke 10:27), which is to act with concern for the welfare of a fellow member of the community. Yeshua is clear that the actions of the steward manifested unrighteousness because he did not respect the property rights of his employer and essentially "robbed" him by wasteful spending and then fraudulent reduction of loans.

because: Grk. hoti, conj. See verse 3 above. The conjunction indicates causality with an inferential aspect. he had acted: Grk. poieō, aor. See verse 3 above. shrewdly: Grk. phronimōs, adv., prudently, shrewdly. The adverb emphasizes the steward's practical cleverness to devise a plan for his future security. The steward further demonstrated his "unrighteousness" because he allowed the debtors to pay less than what they owed and he created a situation that could eventually disrupt relations between the debtors and the rich man.

This doesn't mean, of course, that the debtors got away with the reduced amount. The rich man would do an audit and determine what the debtors should have paid and take steps to collect the shortfall. The fact that the rich man commended the unrighteous steward is not really surprising. The wealthy are generally viewed with disfavor by Yeshua and the apostles (Matt 19:23f; Mark 4:19; Luke 1:53; 6:24; 16:22-23; 1Tim 6:9; Jas 2:6; 5:1; Rev 3:17).

For: Grk. hoti. The conjunction introduces an explanation of the rich man's commendation, most likely by Yeshua in view of the contrast offered. Geldenhuys suggests that this clause properly belongs to Yeshua's exhortation in the next verse. the sons of: pl. of Grk. ho huios, generally a male offspring, whether by direct birth or by more remote ancestry. The phrase "sons of" represents a Hebrew idiom referring to those manifesting a certain character quality or sharing characteristics. of this: Grk. houtos, demonstrative pronoun. See verse 1 above. age: Gr. ho aiōn, properly, an age or era ("time-span"), characterized by a specific quality or type of existence (HELPS).

In the Besekh Yeshua and the apostles generally speak of two specific ages, the "present age" (Heb. olam hazeh; Matt 28:20) and the "age to come" (Heb. olam haba; Matt 12:32) in which the Messiah reigns. However, lexicons recognize a second category of meaning of the noun: a spatial concept, the world or the universe. Thus, many versions translate aiōn here as "world." The translation of "world" means the inhabitants of the earth existing in a certain time period. The idiomatic expression "sons of this age" is a negative description illustrating a focus on the flesh (self-interest) rather than the things of God.

"The sons of this age" occurs also in Luke 20:34 in reference to the Sadducees because not believing in life after death and the resurrection meant their focus was strictly on what may be gained in this life. The idiom corresponds to "the sons of the evil one" (Matt 13:38) and "the sons of disobedience" (Eph 2:2). The idiom applies to the steward because he was willing to defraud his employer, but also to the debtors who were quite willing to go along with the scheme. The AMP version defines the idiom as "unbelievers" and a common characteristic of unbelievers is a lack of absolute integrity. There are many examples of this fact in modern culture.

are: Grk. eimi, pres., 3p-pl. See verse 1 above. more shrewd: Grk. phronimos, adj., using one's wits effectively; judicious, prudent, shrewd, wise. The first use of phronimos in the LXX is in Genesis 3:1 to translate Heb. arum ("crafty, cunning, shrewd") to describe the Serpent. Stern translates the adjective with Heb. sekel, meaning "common sense, practical intelligence," or "smarts" in the modern vernacular. Of interest is that Yeshua uses the adjective phronimos in his mission instructions to his disciples, "Therefore, be shrewd as the serpents, and innocent as the doves" (Matt 10:16).

among: Grk. eis, prep. See verse 4 above. The preposition has the meaning of "among" when occurring before a noun comprising a multitude (Thayer). However, Plummer prefers to render the preposition as "towards." their own: pl. of Grk. heautou, reflexive pronoun. See verse 3 above. kind: Grk. ho genea, generation, and can refer to (1) persons with common interests, kind of people; (2) people; linked as contemporaries, generation; (3) a span of time loosely equal to a generation; or (4) a family line represented in a genealogy. The first meaning is intended here. The reference carries a negative connotation.

than: Grk. huper, prep., with the root meaning of "over" or "beyond" and used here as a marker of a condition that exceeds in measure or degree, thus superior to one. the sons: pl. of Grk. ho huios. of light: Grk. ho phōs, that which serves as a revealing or disclosing medium; light. The AMP version defines the idiom as "believers." Yeshua will use this idiom when he returns to Jerusalem to describe those who put their trust in the true Light (John 12:36). Paul also uses the idiom to describe members of the Thessalonica congregation, which serves as a contrast to the "sons of darkness" (1Th 5:5).

The expression also appears in Qumran scrolls to describe members of the Essene community and would be equivalent to "enlightened ones" (Morris 601, fn94). The expression is found especially in the Community Rule (1QS, 4Q255, 5Q11; TDSS 112-135) to designate those whom to love in contrast to the sons of darkness who are to be hated. In the War Rule (1QM and 4Q491-497; TDSS 146-170), the sons of light are delivered in an apocalyptic war waged by the Messiah against the wicked.

Ellicott comments that the "children of light" are those in whom light is the prevailing element of their life, and they are necessarily also children of God; for "God is light, and in Him is no darkness at all" (1Jn 1:5). Light is first passive. It is a lifestyle: "for you were formerly darkness, but now you are Light in the Lord; walk as children of Light" (Eph 5:8 NASU). Paul illustrated the passive principle, "you will prove yourselves to be blameless and innocent, children of God above reproach in the midst of a crooked and perverse generation, among whom you appear as lights in the world" (Php 2:15; cf. 1Th 5:5). Light is also active. Light exposes and displaces darkness wherever it travels.

Yeshua offers a statement of reality and contrast. The sons of this age are devious and deceitful. The sons of light have no need to be unscrupulous in their dealings with others. Plummer observes that men of the world in their dealings with men like themselves are more prudent than the children of light are in their interactions with one another. Worldly people are very farsighted and ready in their transaction with one another for temporal objects. The spiritually minded ought to be equally ready to exercise wisdom in promoting heavenly objectives.

Stern comments that Yeshua is not praising this corrupt steward's goal of "looking out for Number One," but his cleverness and intelligence in pursuing his mistaken goal. "Further, his comment that the worldly are more creative in working toward their aims than those enlightened by trusting God are in pursuing the goals God has set forth for them seems to be true today as well as then. Many well-intentioned people are bound, when seeking solutions, by lack of imagination, freedom and grounding in reality."

Fiduciary Fidelity, 16:9-13

9 And I say to you, acquire for yourselves friends from the mammon of unrighteousness, so that when it fails, they will receive you into the eternal dwellings.

Reference: 2Esdras 2:11; Matthew 10:16.

And: Grk. kai, conj. I: Grk. egō, first person pronoun. say: Grk. legō, pres. See verse 1 above. This is Yeshua speaking, not the rich man, and he proceeds to give an authoritative command. to you: Grk. humeis, pl. pronoun of the second person; the disciples. Yeshua now makes an authoritative exhortation. acquire: Grk. poieō, aor. imp., 2p-pl. See verse 3 above. The great majority of versions translate the command as "make," but Thayer correctly points out that with the connection to the pronoun following the thrust of the command is to acquire. The NIV has "gain." The command stresses a seeking effort.

for yourselves: pl. of Grk. heautou, reflexive pronoun. See verse 3 above. Plummer notes that the pronoun stands first with emphasis. friends: pl. of Grk. philos, adj., a friend; someone dearly loved (prized) in a personal, intimate way; a trusted confidant, held dear in a close bond of personal affection (HELPS). The way to acquire friends is to be a friend as Yeshua did (cf. Luke 7:34). This could be an example of friendship evangelism. Rather than initiating a "sales-type" pitch or a confrontational conversation, one builds bonds of trust over time. Demonstrating compassion through meeting practical needs provides the opportunity for sharing the good news (cf. Luke 5:29-32; John 15:15; 1Th 2:8).

from: Grk. ek, prep. See verse 4 above. Thayer explains that the preposition is used here to emphasize origin or source, thus some versions render the term with "of" or "from" (ASV, BRG, DRA, KJV, LSB, TLV, YLT). Yet many Bible versions translate the preposition as expressing means ('by means of') (CJB, CSB, ESV, MJLT, MW, NASB, NIV, NLT, NRSV, RSV). the mammon: Grk. ho mamōnas, wealth of various kinds. The term occurs four times in the Besekh, including three times in this chapter, and all with a negative application. Lexicons say that the Greek term is derived from Aramaic mamon, "what is entrusted to man." Vine, citing Gesenius (167), suggests the Greek term is derived from Heb. matmōn signifying "treasure" (Gen 43:23).

However, Douglas Hamp concurs that the term is Hebrew in origin (63-65). The word, in fact, comes from an old Hebrew root המון, hamon, meaning essentially "many, a lot." Among the meanings are riches and abundance. In addition, the term is found nine times in the Mishnah. The passages in which mammon is found are in Hebrew (not Aramaic!) and are in reference to money and terms of payment (e.g. Ketubot 3:2; Ber. 61b). In a survey of Jewish literature in Hebrew Jastrow defines Heb. mammon as "accumulation, wealth, value and money" (794). Stern also defines the Hebrew term as "wealth, riches." Some versions render the term here with "money" (EASY, PHILLIPS, NTFE, VOICE, WE).

of unrighteousness: Grk. ho adikia. See the previous verse. The Greek construction tou mamōna tēs adikias could have the natural meaning of wealth used in unrighteous ways as the phrase is translated in a few versions (GW, NOG). It could also allude to the fact that currency minted by the Greeks and Romans incorporated figures of pagan deities or some element connected with pagan religion. Roman coins during the Empire often contained an image of their current ruler, either in a pose or with inscriptions indicating deification.

The difference in the translation of the preposition ek yields two possible intentions of Yeshua's command: (1) "use worldly wealth to gain friends for yourselves" (NIV), which is interpreted to mean, "use material resources as a way to further the work of God" (AMP) or "use your money to bless the poor." Geldenhuys notes there are similar rabbinical sayings: "alms are the salt of riches," and that "the rich help the poor in this world, but the poor help the rich in the world to come." Both Yochanan the Immerser and Yeshua urged people to share possessions with the poor (Luke 3:11; 12:33). This instruction may serve as a prelude to the parable of the rich man and Lazarus in verse 19.

(2) The phrase "mammon of unrighteousness" could refer to wealthy and worldly people. Thus, Yeshua could be instructing his disciples to foster friendships with people "of the world." After all, disciples are a light to the world (Matt 5:14; Php 2:15). Yeshua is applying the lesson of the parable and urging different behavior. The steward sought to make friends by conspiring with debtors to defraud his employer. Yeshua is not instructing his disciples to stay away from people of the world (cf. 1Cor 5:9-10), but rather to consider them as objects of God's love and therefore deserving the message of salvation. Yeshua called the rich to repentance as well as the poor.

so that: Grk. hina, conj. See verse 4 above. when: Grk. hotan, conj. See verse 4 above. it fails: Grk. ekleipō, aor. subj., to fail, to cease, come to an end. The subjunctive mood is the mood of probability. This verb is only employed by Luke (also Luke 22:32; 23:45; Heb 1:12). Nicoll suggests the verb anticipates death, in which all that was gained in life is left behind. This clause could also be a prophetic anticipation of financial loss or economic catastrophe as a judgment of God in the last days (cf. Matt 24:7; Luke 21:11; 1Th 5:3; Rev 6:5-6).

they will receive: Grk. dechomai, aor. mid. subj., 3p-pl. See verse 4 above. The verb has no expressed subject, but the use of the plural may reflect the Jewish custom of referring to God obliquely (Liefeld). Stern suggests the subject of the verb is God the Father and Yeshua the Son. Other commentators (Ellicott) include the angels as in Luke 15:7, 10 and verse 22 below. However, considering the context and the antecedent of the verb the friends made by disciples must be included in the welcoming committee. you: Grk. humeis, pl. second person pronoun; i.e., the disciples. into: Grk. eis, prep.

the eternal: pl. of Grk. ho aiōnios, adj., can mean (1) relating to a period of time extending far into the past; long ages ago; (2) relating to time without boundaries or interruption; eternal; or (3) relating to a period of unending duration; permanent, lasting. The third meaning applies here. dwellings: pl. of Grk. skēnē, a tent, booth, lodging, or dwelling. Notably Yeshua does not say "they will receive you in Heaven" (Grk. ouranos). The noun skēnē is probably an allusion to the booths in which Israelites stayed during Sukkot, the Feast of Booths. Sukkot commemorates the forty-year period during which the children of Israel were wandering in the desert, living in temporary shelters (Lev 23:42-43).

Observance of Sukkot is a recognition of our transient state on earth and our anticipation of a permanent home (Heb 11:8-10; 13:14). The eternal dwellings will not be in an interstellar golden cube. The heavenly city will be brought to earth (Rev 21:1-3, 10) and Yeshua's kingdom will be established on the earth and headquartered in Jerusalem (cf. Ezek 20:40; 34:23-24; 37:24-25; Zech 14:1-11; Matt 24:30; Rom 11:25-27).

10 "The one faithful with very little is faithful also with much; and the one unfaithful with very little is unfaithful also with much.

Reference: Matthew 25:21, 23; 1Corinthians 4:2.

Considering the actions of the steward in the previous parable Yeshua now offers a maxim with respect to exercising responsibility over the degree of wealth God provides or the management of another's property in which past behavior is used to predict future behavior. Yeshua will use this principle in the Olivet Discourse in describing the rewards given in Messiah's judgment (Matt 25:21, 23).

The one: Grk. ho, definite article, but used here as a demonstrative pronoun. faithful: Grk. pistos, adj., may mean (1) characterized by constancy and therefore worthy of trust; or (2) believing or trusting with commitment. The first meaning is intended here in the sense of one who is compliant with expectations. with: Grk. en, prep. See verse 3 above. The preposition may signify personal possession or "being in charge of." very little: Grk. elachistos, adj., serves as a superlative of mikros, 'smallest,' hence 'to a lowest level or degree; least thing, very little thing. is: Grk. eimi, pres. See verse 1 above. faithful: Grk. pistos. also: Grk. kai, conj.

with: Grk. en. much: Grk. polus, adj., extensive in scope, either indicating number ("many"); or high degree in amount or quality ("much, great"), here the latter. Competence and fidelity in a small degree of responsibility is predictive of future performance and can often lead to promotion with greater responsibilities. and the one: Grk. ho. unfaithful: Grk. adikos (from alpha as a neg. prefix, and dikē, "right, justice"), adj., not in accord with what is right and approved and may be used to mean (1) unjust in judgment (2) one who breaks God's laws, unrighteous, sinful; (3) one who deals fraudulently with others, untrustworthy.

Given the stewardship setting the adjective describes one who is false to a trust (Thayer). Many versions translate the term as "dishonest." The adjective is used as an antonym of "faithful," so "unfaithful" seems appropriate (NMB). with: Grk. en. very little: Grk. elachistos. is: Grk. eimi, pres. unfaithful: Grk. adikos. also: Grk. kai. in: Grk. en. much: Grk. polus. A person who can't be trusted with a small responsibility won't be trusted with greater responsibility.

11 Therefore if in the unjust mammon you have not been faithful, who will entrust the true riches to you?

Therefore: Grk. oun, conj. may be used to (1) denote that what it introduces is the result of or an inference from what precedes, "so, therefore, consequently, accordingly, then;" or (2) resume a subject once more after an interruption, "so, as has been said" (BAG). The first meaning applies here. if: Grk. ei, conj., a contingency marker that introduces a current real condition, or an assumption for the sake of argument; here the former; if, whether, though.

in: Grk. en, prep. the unjust: Grk. ho adikos, adj. See the previous verse. Cassirer renders the adjective as "that base thing." Some versions translate the adjective as "worldly" (CEB, CJB, CSB, GNT, TLB, NCV, NET, NIV, NLT). mammon: Grk. mamōnas. See verse 9 above. The noun is rendered as "money" in some versions (EASY, GNC, HCSB, NTFE, VOICE, WEB). A number of versions have "wealth" (CEB, CJB, CSB, GNT, ICB, TLB, NCB, NET, NIV, NLT). Plummer says that the expression obviously means the same as "mammon of unrighteousness" in verse 9, i.e.. the wealth which is commonly a snare and tends to promote unrighteousness.

you have not: Grk. ou, adv. See verse 2 above. been: Grk. ginomai, aor. mid., 2p-pl., to transfer from one state to another, and here means come to be, become. The aorist tense points to past behavior and the second person plural form invites the disciples to put themselves in this situation. faithful: pl. of Grk. pistos, adj. See the previous verse. In other words, the hypothetical premise of the argument points to a past record of lacking trust in handling wealth as in the parable of the unrighteous steward.

who: Grk. tís, interrogative pronoun. See verse 2 above. will entrust: Grk. pisteuō, fut., to have confidence in the reliability or trustworthiness of some thing or someone. the true riches: Grk. ho alēthinos, adj., in accord with what is true; (1) true, in the sense of reliable or dependable; (2) opposite of superficial, real, genuine, authentic; or (3) in accord with fact or circumstance, accurate. The second meaning is probably most relevant here as a contrast with "worldly wealth." The adjective is distinctive, occurring 28 times in the Besekh, particularly in the writings of John (23 times; e.g., "true light, true vine, true worshippers, true God).

The adjective emphasizes the integrity of what is true, down to its inner make-up (HELPS). A point of contrast could be that worldly wealth is perishable, whereas the "true" is imperishable, such as the covenantal promises or spiritual blessings, "the unsearchable riches of the Messiah" (Eph 3:8 BR). to you: Grk. humeis, pl. second person pronoun; i.e., the disciples. The contrast could allude to the difference in secular wealth managed by the rich and the wealth of the Temple managed by priests and Levites. The thrust of the rhetorical question is that only God can delegate or dispense the "true riches" to human beings (cf. Rom 12:6; 1Cor 12:4-7; 1Pet 4:10).

12 And if you have not been faithful with that of another, who will give to you that which is your own?

The syntax of this verse follows the form of the previous verse. And: Grk. kai, conj. if: Grk. ei, conj. you have not: Grk. ou, adv. been: Grk. ginomai, aor. mid., 2p-pl. See the previous verse. faithful: Grk. pistos, adj. See verse 10 above. Some versions have "trustworthy" (CJB, DLNT, GNC, PHILLIPS, NABRE, NET, NIV, TLV). The verbal clause depicts a pattern of behavior. with: Grk. en, prep. that: Grk. ho, definite article but used here as a relative pronoun. The article is used with the sense "that which belongs to." of another: Grk. allotrios, adj., belonging to another, not one's own.

Liefeld suggests the adjective refers to God. Thus, the statement is a reminder that earthly wealth comes from God and it is ours only as a loan and a trust (cf. Deut 8:18; 1Chr 29:14; Matt 25:14-30; 1Cor 4:1-2; 1Tim 6:17-19). The provision of wealth comes with an expectation that it will be used to benefit the Kingdom of God, as well as the good of others in the community, especially the poor. A few versions, as the KJV, translate the adjective as "another man's," taking the statement as an allusion to the steward in the preceding parable.

who: Grk. tís, interrogative pronoun. See verse 2 above. will give: Grk. didōmi, fut., to give, used in a wide variety of situations, often with the focus on generosity. to you: Grk. humeis, pl. second person pronoun. The focus of the verbal question in on the world to come (Plummer). that which is: Grk. ho. your own: Grk. humeteros, adj., possessive pronoun, belonging to you in close association; your, yours.

The rhetorical question offers a reality check to disciples who expected to live securely in their own homes and enjoy prosperity in the Messianic Kingdom (Isa 60:1-9; 65:21; Mic 4:4; Zech 8:11-13; Matt 25:34; 1Pet 1:4; Rev 2:7, 17; 3:12). Plummer suggests that verses 10-12 sketch a scenario of a wealthy owner who educates his son for managing the estate to which he is heir, and proves his fitness for it by allowing him to have control of something that is of little value except as an instrument for forming and discerning character. If the son proves faithless in this insignificant charge, he is disinherited.

13 No servant is able serve two masters; for either he will hate the one and he will love the other, or he will be devoted to one and he will despise the other. You are not able to serve God and money."

Reference: Matthew 6:24.

No: Grk. oudeis (from ou, "not," and heis, "one"), adj., used to indicate negation of a person or thing as actually existing at a given place or moment; no one, not one, none. The negation is emphatic. servant: Grk. oiketēs, slave who lives in a house serving under the authority of the householder (Sirach 4:30; 6:11); house servant. The term denotes working for a family with affection and devotion (HELPS). is able: Grk. dunamai, pres. mid. See verse 2 above. serve: Grk. douleuō, pres. inf., to be in slavery to, to function in total obedience to a master as a slave or servant. two: Grk. duo, the number two. masters: pl. of Grk. kurios. See verse 3 above.

Yeshua presents a logical impossibility, because in ancient times a servant belonged totally to one employer. There was no possibility as in modern times of working for two different employers at the same time. Yeshua then presents the logical outcome if such an employment scenario were to be attempted. for: Grk. gar, conj. See verse 2 above. either: Grk. ē, conj. used to denote an alternative ("either," "or") or a comparison ("than"), here the former. he will hate: Grk. miseō, fut., to detest, abhor or reject. In the LXX miseō translates Heb. sane ("saw–nay"), which has the same meaning (first in Gen 26:27).

The biblical term can represent a range of emotional response, especially the hostility shown by an enemy (Matt 24:9). However, Bivin notes that in Hebrew "hate" can also mean to "love less" or "put in second place" (cf. Gen 29:30-31; Deut 21:15-17). the one: Grk. ho heis, adj., the number one, used here to denote one of two. and: Gr. kai, conj. he will love: Grk. agapaō, fut., may mean (1) to have such an interest in another that one wishes to contribute to the other's well-being, even if it means making a personal sacrifice to do so; or (2) to take delight in, value, esteem. The first meaning is intended here.

The verb is generally devoid of strong emotion, and contains the idea of devotion for the sake of another or acting only for the highest good of another. In the Besekh that devotion is often portrayed in sacrificial terms. the other: Grk. ho heteros, adj. See verse 7 above. The adjective denotes the second of the two hypothetical employers. Bivin notes that the verb "love" when contrasted with "hate," can mean "to put first, to prefer" (109). The competing expectations of the two employers will have a negative emotional impact. The servant will inevitably like one master more than the other, which could affect his job performance.

or: Grk. ē. he will be devoted: Grk. antechō, fut. mid., to have a close attachment to or interest in; respect, esteem. to one: Grk. heis. and he will despise: Grk. kataphroneō, fut., may mean (1) look down on; despise, disdain, scorn; or (2) pay no attention to, disregard. The first meaning seems more likely (Mounce). the other: Grk. ho heteros. The servant in this scenario is not capable in a psychological sense of maintaining total loyalty to the two masters at the same time.

You are not: Grk. ou, adv. able: Grk. dunamai, pres. mid., 2p-pl. to serve: Grk. douleuō, pres. inf. God: Grk. theos, properly God, the omnipotent, omniscient, omnipresent Creator and owner of all things (Gen 1:1). Theos is not a philosophical construct for monotheism, the belief in one deity. The only God in existence is the God of Israel (Ex 5:1; Isa 44:6; 45:5-6; 46:9; Luke 1:68). and Mammon: Grk. mamōnas. See verse 9 above. Many versions translate the noun here as "money." Yeshua appears to personify Mammon as a deified power which exercises mastery over people. The materialistic world desiring security focuses on the accumulation of wealth and in doing so become enslaved to unrighteous values.

The expression "serve Mammon" would imply far more than just earning a living. God expects His people to work for their bread and not be lazy (cf. Eph 4:28; 2Th 3:10). And, from the fruit of that labor God expects tithes and offerings to be brought to the sanctuary (Deut 12:6; Mal 3:8; Matt 10:8-10; 23:23; 1Cor 9:4-7; 16:2; 2Tim 2:6). However, to "serve Mammon" refers to the pursuit of wealth, making the accumulation of wealth as the priority of life, which can only result in many stresses and sorrows (1Tim 6:10, 17).

Torah Principles Applied, 16:14-18

Stern notes that some commentators regard the verses in this section as disconnected remarks placed together by an editor. However, they constitute a brief midrash applying Torah principles to the reaction of the Pharisees' to his parable and teaching (verses 1–13), as well as serving as an introduction to the next parable. Liefeld adds that Yeshua charges the Pharisees with lacking a proper sense of values (v. 15), which leads to the saying about the value of the kingdom and the Torah (vv. 16-17). Then, reference to the permanence of the Torah becomes the context for an example of a contested moral standard, divorce and remarriage (v. 18).

14 Now the Pharisees, being lovers of money, were listening to all these things and were ridiculing him.

Reference: 1Timothy 6:10; 2Timothy 3:2.

Now: Grk. de, conj. the Pharisees: pl. of Grk. Pharisaios, a rough transliteration of Heb. P'rushim, meaning "separatists." Their theology and pietistic code of conduct provided the basis for Orthodox Judaism. For more information on the Pharisees see my comment on Luke 5:17. being: Grk. huparchō, pl. pres. part. See verse 1 above. lovers of money: pl. of Grk. philarguros (from philos, "friend, lover" and arguros, "silver, money"), adj., in love with money or personal gain. The adjective occurs in classical Greek literature as early as the 5th century B.C. (LSJ), and occurs in earlier Jewish literature (2Macc 10:20; 4Macc 2:8; Test. Levi 17:11).

For the Jewish sages wealth was one of seven things which, if used moderately, is wholesome to the body, and if in excess, is the reverse (Tosephtha of R. Nathan, Avot 5:9). Also, "the more property the more anxiety" (Mishnah, Avot 2:7). The reason for the increased anxiety is that the wealthier he is the more wives he will take, each of whom requires a large number of serving maids and then the household grows to such proportions that he requires a large retinue of slaves (Ibid., fn 50).

On a previous occasion Yeshua accused the Pharisees of having an "evil eye" and being full of robbery (Luke 11:34, 39), by which he referred to the vice of greed and grasping after more, even to the point of harming others (Luke 20:47). King Solomon wrote,

"20 A faithful man will abound with blessings, But he who hastens to be rich will not go unpunished. 21 To show partiality is not good, because for a piece of bread a man will transgress. 22 A man with an evil eye (Heb. ra ayin) hastens after riches, and does not consider that poverty will come upon him." (Prov 28:20-22 NKJV)

The Pharisees practiced rigorous tithing (Matt 23:23; Luke 18:12), for which they expected reward: "Give tithes so that you may become wealthy" (Shabbath 119a). Plummer comments that Pharisees could justify their covetousness, because they regarded their wealth as a special blessing for their carefulness in observing the Torah and traditions. Hence their contempt for teaching which declared that there is danger in wealth, and that as a rule it promotes unrighteousness. They considered themselves an abiding proof of the connection between riches and righteousness.

Liefeld comments that Yeshua's charge of greed is not intended to be an absolute generalization. Jewish teachers who had been influenced by Hellenistic culture were aware that philosophers often taught for fees. Rabbis in the first centuries of our era often had secular jobs. The Pharisees would not have been immune to desires for remuneration commensurate with their own sense of importance. Later on, Paul was to work at a trade so he could say that he did not "put on a mask to cover up greed" (1Th 2:5; cf. 1Cor 9:12).

were listening: Grk. akouō, impf., 3p-pl. See verse 2 above. to all: pl. of Grk. pas, adj., comprehensive in scope, but without statistical emphasis; all, every. these things: n.pl. of Grk. houtos, demonstrative pronoun. See verse 1 above. The pronoun alludes to the content of verses 1-13. As usual the Pharisees maintained surveillance on Yeshua and carefully monitored his teaching. and: Grk. kai, conj. were ridiculing: Grk. ekmuktērizō, impf., 3p-pl., to mock, ridicule, or sneer at. The verb is derived from ek, "out of" and muktērízō, "to blow the nose," properly, turn the nose up (HELPS). him: Grk. autos, personal pronoun; Yeshua. Stern explains the verbal clause as "they turned up their noses at him."

15 And he said to them, "You are those acquitting themselves before men, but God knows your hearts; for that which is exalted among men is an abomination before God.

Reference: 1Samuel 16:7; Proverbs 21:2; John 2:25; Acts 1:24; Romans 8:27.

And: Grk. kai, conj. he said: Grk. legō, aor. See verse 1 above. to them: pl. of Grk. autos, personal pronoun; i.e., the Pharisees. You: Grk. humeis, pl. second person pronoun. are: Grk. eimi, pres., 2p-pl. See verse 1 above. those: pl. of Grk. ho, definite article, but used here as a demonstrative pronoun, lit. "the ones." acquitting: Grk. dikaioō, pl. pres. part., properly, approved, especially in a legal, authoritative sense (HELPS). In practical terms the verb refers to being cleared of charges related to sins or wrongdoing. The great majority of Bible versions translate the verb dikaioō here with "justify." The English verb "justify" means to declare innocent or guiltless; absolve; acquit.

In the LXX dikaioō translates Heb. tsadaq, a verb with two categories of meaning: (1) as a condition or character quality, to have a just cause, be in the right, be just or righteous (Gen 38:26; Job 33:12; Ps 51:6; Isa 43:26), and (2) in the administration of justice, to declare right, to vindicate, or prove right, to acquit or be acquitted, or to be cleared of wrongdoing (e.g., Ex 23:7; Deut 5:21; 2Sam 15:4; Ps 51:4; Isa 5:23) (DNTT 3:355). The context of this important word is a righteous standard against which people are measured.

The biblical terms Heb. tsadaq and Grk. dikaioō function as a word picture of a trial with a heavenly Judge and a righteous standard against which people are measured and evaluated. One case before the court is an innocent person wrongly accused. The outcome of that trial vindicates the person's character and he is acquitted. Throughout the Tanakh the verb tsadaq occurs only in this vindication scenario. In other words the person is actually righteous and the verb describes the defense of that person's character.

themselves: 3p-pl. of Grk. heautou, reflexive pronoun. before: Grk. enōpion, adv. functioning as a prep. to mean 'before,' 'in sight of' or 'in the presence of.' The term has a focus on awareness exhibited or evaluation made by another. men: pl. of Grk. ho anthrōpos. See verse 1 above. In this context the "men" would those the Pharisees want to impress. Yeshua presents a charge that the Pharisees are actually guilty, but presume to judge themselves as innocent rather than submitting to the judgment of God. Liefeld comments that self-justification is a temptation for religious people (cf. Matt 5:20; 6:1).

but: Grk. de, conj. God: Grk. ho theos, lit. "the one God." See verse 13 above. knows: Grk. ginōskō, pres. See verse 4 above. your: Grk. humeis. hearts: pl. of Grk. kardia, the pumplike organ of blood circulation, used fig. of the inner man, the soul or mind as the seat of thoughts, passions, desires, appetites, affections, attitudes and purposes. Luke asserts the omniscience of God, which Yeshua shares (cf. Luke 5:22; 6:8; 11:17; 24:38; John 2:25). Stern notes that God's omniscience is asserted in the Tanakh: 1Samuel 16:7, "A man looks on the outward appearance, but ADONAI looks on the heart;" and 1Chronicles 28:9, "ADONAI searches all hearts and understands all the imaginations of the thoughts."

Yeshua now offers an observation that has particular relevance to the Pharisees, but certainly remains true in modern culture. for: Grk. hoti, conj. See verse 3 above. that which: Grk. ho. is exalted: Grk. hupsēlos, adj., may mean (1) positioned at a point that is higher; high, lofty; or (2) considered to be of special importance; high, lofty. The second meaning is intended here with the focus on that which appears to offer a sense of self-importance. among: Grk. en, prep. men: pl. of Grk. anthrōpos. See verse 1 above. Yeshua refers to priorities and values held by people in opposition to God's standards. The observation has particular relevance to the Pharisees, for which he will condemn in a list when he returns to Jerusalem (Matt 23:2-32).

is an abomination: Grk. bdelugma, a detestable thing and refers to anything that must not be brought before God because it arouses His wrath. Rienecker says that bdelugma refers to something that stinks in the nostrils (2:503). See the Additional Note below. before: Grk. enōpion. God: Grk. ho theos. In this context the abomination for the Pharisees is their inordinate pursuit of wealth.

Additional Note: Abominations

In Scripture the term "abomination" generally describes objects or behaviors hated by God and for which He required severe punishment. The worst abominations to God are idols or false deity worship (Deut 7:25), child sacrifice (Lev 18:21; Deut 23:1), transvestism (Deut 22:5), and sexual sins, which include adultery, bestiality, homosexuality, incest, and prostitution (Lev 18:6-23; 20:10-21; Matt 5:28; Rom 1:24-27; 1Cor 5:1, 11; 6:9, 18; Gal 5:19-20; Eph 5:3, 5; 1Th 4:3; 1Tim 1:10; Heb 12:16; 13:4).

King Solomon listed seven things that are detestable to God (Prov 6:16-19): "Haughty eyes, a lying tongue, hands that shed innocent blood, a heart that devises wicked plans, feet that run rapidly to evil, a false witness who utters lies, and one who spreads strife among brothers" (NASU). God is immutable, which means He does not change (Num 23:19; 1Sam 15:29; Ps 90:1-2; 102:25-27; Isa 40:27-28; Mal 3:6; Jas 1:17; Heb 13:8). Therefore, the divine declarations in Scripture are still authoritative (Ps 33:11; 119:89; Isa 40:8; Rom 11:29; 1Pet 1:25).

Yeshua will eventually reveal to John on Patmos that those who practice abominations will not be allowed to enter Heaven (Rev 21:27; cf. 1Cor 6:9-10; Gal 5:19-21; Eph 5:5). Modern culture is rife with abominations that men treat as acceptable (calling evil good, Isa 5:20), not the least of which are physical gender transitions, homosexual marriage, pornography and abortion. Some churches have become apostate because of their tolerance of abominations.

16 "The Torah and the Neviim were until Yochanan; from that time the Kingdom of God is proclaimed as good news, and everyone is pressing into it.

Reference: Matthew 11:12; John 1:17.

The Torah: Grk. ho nomos may mean either (1) a principle or standard relating to behavior or (2) codified legislation, i.e. law. The second meaning applies here and in Jewish culture the term referred to the first division of the Hebrew Bible, the five books of Moses (Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers and Deuteronomy). The ancient division of the work of Moses into five sections is supported by the LXX that was in use among Jews by the 2nd century B.C. and the Samaritan Pentateuch, which is even earlier (NIBD 815). In Christianity the first five books of the Bible are referred to as the "Pentateuch" (from Grk. penta, "five", and teukhos, "tool" or "vessel"), which in late Greek referred to a scroll. The term meant "five-volumned."

and: Grk. kai, conj. the Neviim: pl. of Grk. ho prophētēs, one who is gifted with the ability for interpretation or revelation transcending normal insight or awareness (DNTT 3:76). The plural noun used in this verse denotes the second division of the Hebrew Bible, the literary works of the Hebrew prophets in the Tanakh called Nevi'im. The Nevi'im included the Early Prophets (Joshua through 2Kings) and the Latter Prophets (Isaiah through Malachi), except Daniel which was included in the K'tuvim (Writings).

The mention of the literary Prophets occurs 29 times in the Besekh, 15 of which are combined with a mention of Moses or the Torah (Matt 5:17; 7:12; 11:13; 22:40; Luke 16:16, 29, 31; 24:27, 44; John 1:45; Acts 13:15; 24:14; 26:22; 28:23; Rom 3:21). were until: Grk. mechri, adv. expressing a limit, here temporal; as far as, until, even to. Yochanan: Grk. Iōannēs, which attempts to transliterate the Heb. Yochanan ("John" in Christian Bibles) and means "the Lord is gracious," an apt description of the one who would prepare the way of the Messiah (Stern 15). Early English Bible versions shortened Iōannēs to four letters and the Mace New Testament (1729) was the first to use the spelling of "John." Messianic Jewish versions (CJB, MJLT, MW, OJB) render the name as "Yochanan" to emphasize his Hebrew name and Jewish heritage.

Yochanan was a cousin (degree unknown) of Yeshua, born in Hebron just six months before Yeshua (cf. Luke 1:26, 36, 56-57). (See my nativity commentary on Luke 1.) Yochanan was called to be the forerunner and herald of the Messiah (John 1:19-23). He called Israel to repentance and immersion to prepare for the Messiah (Mark 1:4; Luke 3:3, 15-17). Yochanan was widely regarded as a prophet (Matt 14:5; Mark 11:32; Luke 20:6) and Yeshua lauded him as the greatest man born of women (Luke 7:28). While Yochanan left no writings he is here regarded as belonging to the list of great Hebrew prophets.

Yeshua does not mean that the authority of the Torah and the Prophets came to an end when Yochanan appeared. (See the Additional Note below on the continuing authority of the Torah.) Rather the mention of Yochanan the Immerser marks the end of one age and the approach of a new one (Bruce 115). Indeed the Torah and the Prophets give prophetic and predictive witness to the coming of the new age, the age of the Messiah.

from: Grk. apo, prep. then: Grk. tote, temporal adv. that focuses on a time or circumstance that is closely associated with what precedes in the narrative; at that time, then, thereupon. The adverb denotes from the time of Yochanan's immersion ministry. the Kingdom: Grk. ho basileia, kingdom, sovereignty, or royal power. of God: Grk. ho theos. See verse 13 above. The general hope that God would establish His reign as King over all the earth, with all idolatry banished, has its roots in the Tanakh and further emphasized in intertestamental Jewish literature. By the first century Jewish teaching associated the Kingdom of God with the reign of the Messiah on earth. For an explanation of the important doctrine of the Kingdom of God see my comment on Luke 4:43.

is proclaimed as good news: Grk. euaggelizō, pres., to announce the good message, and is used here to mean spread good tidings of God's beneficial concern, especially God's saving action in connection with Yeshua. The second meaning applies here. Immediately after his immersion Yeshua began proclaiming the good news of the Kingdom of God. and everyone: Grk. pas, adj. See verse 14 above. is pressing: Grk. biazō, pres. mid., to use power to forcefully seize, laying hold of something with positive aggressiveness (HELPS). The verb occurs eight times in the LXX to translate almost as many different Hebrew words that convey various degrees of aggressiveness, from verbal persuasion to violent assault.

into: Grk. eis, prep. it: Grk. autos, personal pronoun; i.e., the Kingdom. Many versions translate the verbal clause as "forcing his way into it," and a few versions even use the term "violence" to describe the action. However, no one can force his way into the Kingdom (cf. Matt 7:21-23; John 5:21; 6:44; 10:28). Mounce softens the tone with "takes vigorous steps to enter it." The TLB has simply "multitudes are pressing in." There were times when Yeshua was literally mobbed by the thousands (Luke 8:45; 12:1).

Bruce notes that the clause might suggest something like a universal gate-crashing, which would contradict other statements of Yeshua that few enter (Matt 7:14; 22:14) (116). Yeshua previously responded to a question regarding whether few would be saved by exhorting, "Strive to enter through the narrow door; because many, I tell you, will seek to enter and will not be able" (Luke 13:24). Farrar suggests that verbal clause depicts the eagerness with which the message of the kingdom was accepted by the tax collectors and sinners (cf. Luke 7:20; John 12:19). Yet, many of those who followed Yeshua would eventually leave him because of his high expectations of disciples (John 6:64-66).

17 But it is easier for the heavens and the earth to pass away than one stroke of a letter of the Torah to fail.

Reference: Jeremiah 33:25; Matthew 5:18; 24:35; Mark 13:31; Luke 21:33; 2Peter 3:10.

But: Grk. de, conj. The conjunction introduces a contrast to correct a possible misinterpretation of Yeshua's assertion in the previous verse. it is: Grk. eimi, pres. See verse 1 above. easier for: Grk. eukopos, adj. used for comparison, capable of being done with easy labor, easy. the heavens: Grk. ho ouranos refers to the area above the earth that encompasses three "heavens" (Ps 148:1-4): the atmosphere (Luke 8:5), interstellar space (Luke 21:26) and the location of God's throne (Luke 2:15). Speaking in Hebrew Yeshua would have used the plural Heb. hashamayim ("the heavens"), which is normally translated in the LXX with the singular form of ouranos. The consistent use of the plural form for "heaven" is thought to signify completeness.

and: Grk. kai, conj. the earth: Grk. ho gē can mean (1) the earth in contrast to the heavens; (2) a portion or region of the earth; land, country, region; (3) land as contrasted with the sea; or (4) the ground or soil as the place of agriculture. The first meaning is intended here. to pass away: Grk. parerchomai, aor. inf., may mean either (1) to move spatially from one position to another, to go past or pass by, (2) or to come to an end and so no longer be on the scene, to pass away. The second meaning applies here. Yeshua alludes to prophecy that the heavens and the earth will cease to exist in its present form (Ps 102:26; Isa 13:13; 34:4; 51:6; 66:22; Ezek 32:7; cf. Heb 1:10-12; 2Pet 3:7, 10; Rev 6:14; 21:1).

than: Grk. ē, conj. See verse 13 above. one: Grk. heis, adj., the number one. stroke of a letter: Grk. keraia, a little hook or projection used to finish off a letter on a Hebrew letter; serif. Yeshua was referring to the kotz (literally "thorn"), a tiny decorative spur added to some Hebrew letters (Stern 27), especially to distinguish one letter from another. See a graphic illustration of the Hebrew letters at Hebrew4Christians. The parallel passage in Matthew 5:18 adds "not one iōta," the smallest letter of the Greek alphabet, which is used to transliterate the smallest Hebrew letter (yod). Bivin says that Yeshua's statement there echoes a well-known Hebrew expression, "lo yod v'lo kotso shel yod," which means "not a yod or a thorn of a yod," or "not the most insignificant or unimportant thing" (94).

of the Torah: Grk. ho nomos. See the previous verse. to fail: Grk. piptō, aor. inf., to drop from a relatively high position to a lower position, here meaning "to lose authority, no longer have force" (Thayer). In his Olivet Discourse Yeshua will reiterate that "Heaven and earth will pass away, but My words [note the plural] will not pass away" (Matt 24:35; Mark 13:31; Luke 21:33). The Torah contains the words of ADONAI recorded by Moses (Ex 34:3-4) and Yeshua is ADONAI (John 8:58).

While the mention of the Neviim is not repeated the affirmation concerning the Torah would also apply to the Prophets since the word nomos-Torah includes any instruction or pronouncement of ADONAI. The apostle Paul expressed complete confidence in the Torah and Neviim (Acts 24:14; 26:22; 28:23). While the Sadducees and Samaritans gave no credence to the writings of the Hebrew Prophets, Yeshua affirms that the prophetic announcements of ADONAI will not fail, especially those concerning completion of the Messianic mission and those pertaining to the last days and the Day of the Lord.

Additional Note: The Authority of the Torah

Plummer (388) offers this contradictory comment: "The Law has been superseded. Its types have been fulfilled, and its exclusiveness is abolished: everyone now can force [sic] his way to salvation. But the moral principles of the Law are imperishable since you cannot abolish them." The assumption that the Torah is abolished must logically include its moral principles. Plummer's assertion categorically contradicts the claim Yeshua just made. See my article The Telos of the Torah.

A cursory review of the Besekh will reveal to any unbiased reader that the relevance and authority of the Torah is reiterated many times. (See Matt 5:1-48; 15:3; 19:1-9, 17; 22:36, 38, 40; John 14:15, 21; 15:10ff; Rom 3:19-20; 7:7-13; 1Cor 7:19; 14:34; Eph 6:2; 1Th 4:2-8; 1Tim 1:8; 6:13f; Heb 10:16; Jas 1:25; 2:8-9; 4:11-12; 1Pet 1:16; 1Jn 2:3f; 3:22ff; 4:21; 5:2f; 2Jn 1:4-6; Rev 12:17; 14:12.)

Yeshua endeavored to explain the intent of Torah commandments and to provide guidance on application in order to enable obedience (cf. Matt 5:17; 2Cor 3:3). Moreover, the description of Yeshua as "righteous" and "sinless" is based on the fact that he lived in obedience to Torah commandments (cf. Matt 19:17; 22:16; 27:19; Luke 23:47; John 7:18; 8 :29; 2Cor 5:21; Heb 4:15; 1Jn 2:1).

The attitude expressed in the Besekh toward the Torah is decidedly positive and supportive. In the Sermon on the Mount Yeshua categorically denied that he came to rescind, cancel or nullify the Torah (Matt 5:17)! He then pronounced judgment on anyone who would annul any of the commandments (Matt 5:19). Many Bible versions either purposely or inadvertently have Yeshua denying the authority of Torah commandments in the formula "You have heard it … but I say to you" (Matt 5:21, 27, 33, 38, 43).

Yeshua's expectations of his disciples are in line with the promised empowerment of the New Covenant (Jer 31:31-33; Ezek 11:19-20; 36:27; Heb 8:7-12), which he will institute at the Last Supper (Luke 22:20). The New Covenant expressly promised that God would put His laws into the minds and hearts of His people (Heb 8:10). Thus a key benefit of the New Covenant is empowering disciples to fulfill the expectations of the Torah, as Paul wrote in his letter to the Roman congregation:

"3 For the Torah being powerless, in that it was weak through the flesh, God, having sent His own Son in likeness of sinful flesh and for a sin offering, condemned sin in the flesh, 4 so that the righteous requirement of the Torah might be fulfilled in us, the ones not walking according to Flesh but according to the Spirit." (Rom 8:3-4 BR)

18 "Every man, the one divorcing his wife and then marrying another commits adultery, and the one having been divorced from a husband marrying commits adultery.

Reference: Matthew 5:32; 19:3-12; Mark 10:11-12; 1Cor 7:11-12.

Yeshua now asserts a principle of Torah that is treated in greater length in Matthew 19:3-12 and Mark 10:2-12. Since Yeshua is currently in Perea the pronouncement would certainly cause offense with Herod Antipas, as well as many Pharisees. Stern suggests that this pronouncement of Yeshua is not primarily a teaching on divorce. Rather, it is an example demonstrating that the Torah and the Prophets continue to have authoritative force, as explicitly stated in the previous verse. The Pharisees are not to use their position of power to interpret Scripture in ways that contradict its intent.

Every man: masc. of Grk. pas, adj. the one: Grk. ho, definite article but used here as a demonstrative pronoun. divorcing: Grk. apoluō, pres. part., to set free from a condition or obligation, in this case to dissolve a marriage relationship at a husband's initiative. his: Grk. autos, personal pronoun. wife: Grk. gunē is an adult female person, without respect to age or social status except as defined in the context. In Scripture when a woman belongs to one man with the expectation of sexual intercourse (Gen 2:21-22), the Hebrew or Greek word is translated as "wife."

The earliest mention of divorce is in the Code of Hammurabi around 1700 BC, which allowed women to divorce their husbands. There are several instances of divorce recorded in the Tanakh (Gen 21:14; 1Chr 8:8; Ezra 9:1-2; Mal 2:14). As a theological concept divorce in Scripture is not generally a sin, but a judgment on a breach of covenant, because marriage is a covenant between the couple and God (Mal 2:16). See my article Divorce in the Bible.

God gave four important rulings in the Torah pertaining to divorce. First, priests were expressly forbidden from marrying a divorced woman (Lev 21:7, 14). Second, husbands were absolutely forbidden to divorce their wives in specific cases: (1) a man who falsely accuses his virgin bride of unfaithfulness before marriage (Deut 22:19), and (2) a man who seduces or rapes a woman and subsequently marries her (Ex 22:16-17; Deut 22:28-29). Third, divorce was sanctioned if the husband discovered some indecency (Heb. ervah) in his wife (Deut 24:1). The term ervah concerns explicitly the genitals. Fourth, a woman who has been twice divorced may not return to her first husband (Deut 24:4).

In Jewish culture a divorce was accomplished by the husband presenting a bill of divorcement to his wife. It is not positively known when the custom of writing bills of divorcement commenced, but the mention of the bill in Deuteronomy 24:1 affirms the antiquity of its use. Jewish law adopted the term get (Tractate Gittin) for the divorce certificate, although get can refer to any legal document.

The written notice, given in the presence of witnesses, formally announced the divorce and settled property claims. The get had to be written on durable material with ink that did not fade, and once he had delivered the writ in person to his wife in the presence of witnesses he could not retract it; the woman was free. The document served as proof that the woman was free to remarry. Otherwise, without the certificate a second union would be adultery (cf. Rom 7:3).

Yeshua does not address the issue of proper grounds for divorce here as he does in the Sermon on the Mount (Matt 5:32), where he interprets ervah to mean porneia, actual sexual misconduct. However, Pharisees aligned with Hillel and Shammai held different interpretations of the Deuteronomy term ervah:

"Beth Shammai say a man should not divorce his wife unless he has found her guilty of some unseemly conduct, as it is says, 'because he has found some unseemly [Heb. ervah] thing in her.' Beth Hillel, however, say that he may divorce her even if she merely spoilt his food, since it says, 'because he has found some unseemly thing [Heb. ervah dabar] in her.' R. Akiva says, [he may divorce her] even if he finds another woman more beautiful than she is, as it says, it comes to pass, if she find no favor in his eyes.'" (Gittin 9:10)

Hillel's ruling alluded to the basic duties of a wife set forth in the Mishnah, namely grinding corn, baking bread, washing clothes, cooking, suckling her child, making ready his bed and working in wool (Kethubot 5:5). The opinion of the school of Hillel prevailed because the husband held the power in marriage, not the government. Under Jewish law a man did not have to divorce his wife. If a man suspected his wife of adultery he could take her to the priest to perform the ritual of jealousy (Num 5:12-31).

If she failed to perform her wifely duties, then the husband could "fine" her. He could reduce her Ketubah security portion by seven denarii per week until she reformed her behavior (Ket. 63a). The fine was considered equivalent to the seven kinds of work that the wife was supposed to perform. If she committed any indecent act or violated festival regulations he could take her to a court and obtain a judgment for flogging (Yoma 86b; cf. Deut 25:2-3). As Maimonides said, "A wife who refuses to perform any kind of work that she is obligated to do, may be compelled to perform it, even by scourging her with a rod." (The Code of Maimonides, Book Four: The Book of Women, Yale University Press, 1972, p. 133.)

and then: Grk. kai is used to mark connections or additions in thought, and is extremely flexible in usage. In the LXX kai is used to translate the Heb. vav, which has an even broader usage. When kai is used to connect verbs, the action normally occurs in the same time frame, not months and years apart. Little considered by commentators is that with Yeshua speaking in Hebrew the conjunction was likely the vav of intention or purpose, "in order to, in order that, so that" (Bivin 115f). Thus, Yeshua refers to divorcing with a marital purpose. Only a few versions translate the verse to emphasize this purpose (GW, MSG, NOG). Levine also notes that the grammar of the injunction implies divorce designed to facilitate remarriage.

marrying: Grk. gameō, aor. subj., taking a wife in marriage. The Hebrew equivalent in the context of marriage is laqach, "to take," which in practical terms means "to consummate." In biblical accounts a wife never takes a husband, but a husband takes a wife (e.g., Gen 4:19; 6:2; 11:29; 24:67; 1Sam 25:39; Hos 1:2). Prior to the Sinaitic covenant a man acquired a wife at will by obtaining her consent and then taking her into his tent or house and having intercourse in private. Marriage began at that point (e.g., Gen 25:1; 38:1-3; Ex 2:1). For the normal process of a woman becoming a wife see my web article Marriage in Ancient Israel.

another: fem. of Grk. heteros (for Heb. acher), adj. used to denote something that is different in kind or nature, highlighting differences rather than similarities; other, another, different, a second. Under the Torah a man could simply add another wife and Jews did practice polygamy in the first century (Josephus, Ant. XVII, 1:2; Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho the Jew §134). The "another" could be a concubine (Heb. pilegesh). A pilegesh was a legal wife, but a man did not have to pay a bride-price for a pilegesh nor did she have a dowry. The man was not required to provide a pilegesh a formal betrothal or a marriage contract (Sanh. 21a).

Given the allowance for polygamy one might wonder why bother with divorce? Divorce was the only way to get rid of an unwanted wife. Besides, taking additional wives required the ability to support them (Ex 21:10) and taking another virgin bride would mean satisfying all the financial expectations of a marriage contract (ketubah). Serial monogamy was cheaper. The remarriage contemplated here is not one that occurs months or years after the divorce. Thus, the decision to divorce in order to marry another woman already selected constitutes an unscrupulous act.

commits adultery: Grk. moicheuō (from moichos, adulterer), pres. mid., commit adultery, a violation of the Seventh Commandment (Ex 20:14). By definition adultery always involved sexual relations between a married woman and a man not her husband (Lev 20:10; Prov 6:29-32; Hos 4:13-14) and was considered wrong long before the Ten Commandments were given at Sinai (Gen 12:15-18; 20:3; 26:10). Contrary to some Christian writers Scripture never includes polygamy in the definition of adultery. Under the Torah adultery was punishable by death of both parties (Lev 20:10; Deut 22:22-24). Yeshua's pronouncement here is ironic given his unwillingness to judge the woman taken in adultery (John 8:3-11).

Yeshua's saying does pose pastoral issues, but the straight-forward meaning is clear. On the surface it may seem as if Yeshua's ruling on divorce in order to remarry has nothing to do with the Deuteronomy passage. He does not refer to Moses in order to answer the issue of grounds. Rather, he applied Hillel's fifth rule of exegesis called kelal uferat (the general and the particular). A general principle may be restricted by a particularization of it in another verse – or, conversely, a particular rule may be extended into a general principle.

Yeshua argued that the prohibition of a particular remarriage allowed for extending the commandment to the prohibition of another kind of remarriage. After all the Torah legislation did not forbid all remarriages, only one of a particular type. Yeshua follows that same principle. Thus, Yeshua decrees: if a man divorces his wife (without just cause) in order to marry another woman, then the divorce, though legal, would be contrary to God's will. This ruling finds its precedent in the illegal divorces and remarriages during the time of Ezra (Mal 2:14-16; Ezra 9:1-2; 10:3-44).

Yeshua's pronouncement would no doubt be recognized as a rebuke of Herod Antipas who divorced his first wife Phasaelis in order to marry Herodias (Josephus, Ant., XVIII, 5:1). The action of Antipas was legal under Roman law, but contrary to God's law. Yeshua's ruling is supported by the Mishnah:

"All documents which are accepted in heathen courts, even if they that signed them were Gentiles, are valid [for Jewish courts], except writs of divorce and of emancipation. R. Simeon says: These also are valid; they were only pronounced [to be invalid] when drawn up by unauthorized persons." (Gittin 1:4)

While the ruling of Yeshua essentially agrees in principle with Shammai, Yeshua's declaration provides a broader perspective. The Pharisee debate was only concerned about the grounds for divorce. Any one who divorced under Jewish law (for whatever reason) could freely remarry. Yet, Yeshua made a moral judgment about remarriage and reminded the Pharisees that an unjust divorce (as defined by Torah) would cause a subsequent remarriage to be considered adultery from God's point of view.

and: Grk. kai. the one: Grk. ho. having been divorced: Grk. apoluō, perf. pass. part. from: Grk. apo, prep. See verse 3 above. a husband: Grk. anēr, an adult man as contrasted biologically with a woman without regard to marital status, but used here of a husband. marrying: Grk. gameō, pres. part. commits adultery: Grk. moicheuō, pres. In this clause Yeshua applies the same standard to women divorcing their husbands and in so doing accepts the reality of a divorce initiated by the wife. Under Jewish law only the man could initiate a divorce. However, if a husband refused either conjugal relations or financial support, he could be compelled to divorce his wife with a full settlement (Arak. 21a).

Under Roman law women could initiate a divorce. Yeshua's pronouncement no doubt alludes to Herodias who divorced her husband Herod Philip in order to marry his brother Herod Antipas (Ant. XVIII, 5:4). Yochanan the Immerser had rebuked Antipas for this marital conspiracy, saying "It is not lawful for you to have your brother's wife" (Mark 6:18; cf. Luke 3:19). The Torah absolutely prohibited a man from marrying his sister-in-law (Lev 18:16; 20:21), except under very limited conditions (Deut 25:5), which did not apply in this case. Again, the definition of adultery is extended to include an improper divorce-remarriage.

The Rich Man and Lazarus, 16:19-31

Yeshua now demonstrates the axiom of verse 17 by a practical illustration. Many commentators express the view that the parable does not convey any factual information about life after death. It's just a story. On the contrary the parable does reveal important information that is confirmed elsewhere in Scripture. Yeshua did not make up stuff, but spoke of reality. There is accountability after death (Heb 9:27).

19 "Now there was a certain rich man, and he clothed himself in purple and fine linen, joyously living every day in luxury.

Now: Grk. de, conj. there was: Grk. eimi, impf. a certain: Grk. tis, indefinite pronoun. Many versions don't translate the pronoun, but it is again used to mark distinction. rich: Grk. plousios, adj. See verse 1 above. man: Grk. anthrōpos. The first clause is repeated verbatim (same word order) from verse 1 above. However, the content of the story indicates that a different rich man is being considered. As with the previous parable this story could be based on a true occurrence. The Latin Vulgate translates "rich man" with dives, which many commentators use to refer to the rich man as if it were his name.

and: Grk. kai, conj. he clothed himself in: Grk. endiduskō, impf. mid., to invest with a garment; clothe, put on, wear. The middle voice of the verb signifies " to put on oneself" (Thayer). purple: Grk. porphura, is a loanword in Jewish rabbinic literature, based on the name of the purple fish, a species of mussel or shell-fish, murex (1Macc 4:23) from which a dye was obtained for use in cloth (BAG 100). There were three familiar shades of purple in the ancient world: deep violet, deep scarlet (or crimson), and deep blue.

The purple dye was very costly and was used for the upper garment by the wealthy and princes (royal purple) (Robertson). Elsewhere in the Besekh porphura is used to refer to the robe soldiers put on Yeshua (Mark 15:17), fabric sold by Lydia of Thyatira (Acts 16:14), the garment worn by the great harlot (Rev 17:4), and a commodity in commerce (Rev 18:12).

and fine linen: Grk. bussos, a very expensive and sought-after form of linen, produced from a specific species of Egyptian flax or linen made from it that is very costly and delicate (Thayer). Bussos was also found in India and Achaia. The noun occurs only here in the Besekh. The linen was worn as an undergarment (Plummer). "Some of the Egyptian linen was so fine that it was called woven air" (Vincent). Robertson says it was used for wrapping mummies, which seems oddly appropriate considering the rich man's destiny.

joyously living: Grk. euphrainō, pres. mid. part., to be glad, to rejoice. The verb denotes having a cheery state of mind because of feeling the sense of inner triumph (HELPS). Some versions have "feasted," but the verb does not specifically pertain to eating. In other verses of Luke the verb expresses the celebratory attitude that goes with feasting (12:19; 15:23-24, 29). every: Grk. kata, prep., generally used to signify (1) direction, 'against, down;' (2) position, 'down, upon, in;' or (3) conformity or relation, 'according to, 'with regard to.' The third meaning applies here in a distributive sense.

day: Grk. hēmera, day, generally the interval between sunrise and sunset, but it could also denote the 24-hour day. in luxury: Grk. lamprōs, adv., luxuriously, magnificently, splendidly. By this description it is obvious that the rich man served Mammon.

20 And a certain poor man named Lazarus, covered with sores, had been placed at his gate,

And: Grk. de, conj. a certain: Grk. tis, indefinite pronoun. See verse 1 above. Most versions do not translate the pronoun, but it is used here to mark distinction. poor man: Grk. ptōchos (from ptōssō, "to crouch, cower"), adj., in a needy condition opposite of having abundance, without any resources and often reduced to begging; beggarly, poor, destitute (cf. Jas 2:2-6). The adjective also includes those lacking social position that can influence the rich and powerful. Poverty was widespread and severe in ancient times. With the omission of anthrōpos the adjective is treated as a substantive.

named: Grk. onoma is used in its central sense of identifying someone, an expression occurring frequently in Luke. Lazarus: Grk. Lazaros, a transliteration of Heb. Eleazar ("God has helped"), a confession woven through every appearance of the name in the Tanakh. The name emphasizes that even though poor this man served God in contrast to the rich man. The name was not uncommon, since there were 8 notable men with this name in Israel's history, the first being a son of Aaron the High Priest (Ex 6:23, 25) and the last being the great-great-grandfather of Yeshua (Matt 1:15) (Barker 86f).

Lightfoot notes that in the Jerusalem Talmud Eleazar is contracted to Lazar, so this form of the name would have been current in the first century. Plummer comments that nowhere else does Yeshua give a name to any character in a parable. There is no reason to assume this is the Lazarus resurrected by Yeshua (John 11:1). Tertullian, 3rd century church father, argued that the name is proof that the narrative is based on an actual occurrence (Treatise on the Soul, Chap. VII). Bengel comments that even in a parable a proper name has a place (e.g., Oholah and Oholibah in Ezekiel 23:4).

Thus, Lazarus, who was really in Jerusalem at that time, was known by his own name in heaven; whereas the rich man is not accounted worthy of any name or reputation marked by a name. Ellicott suggests that this Lazarus may have been known to the disciples and the Pharisees, but most commentators treat the name as fictitious. Lightfoot suggests that something more may be intended in the name due to the mention of Abraham, who had an heir named Eliezer (Gen 15:2), the spelling of which is only one letter different than Eleazar but has the same meaning. Geldenhuys comments that the name signified that the poor man while suffering had nevertheless been helped by God with the gift of eternal salvation.

covered with sores: Grk. helkoō (from elkos, "sores"), perf. pass. part., cause to ulcerate or be ulcerous, a medical term common in Hippocrates and ancient medical writings. The verb occurs only here in the Besekh. The condition of Lazarus is not unlike that of Job who was afflicted with boils (Job 2:7). Skin ulcers are open round sores which often develop from poor blood circulation or poor healing from an injury. Often skin ulcers affect the legs, and left untreated the infection can spread to deeper tissue, bones and joints. The condition apparently hindered Lazarus' mobility.

had been placed: Grk. ballō, plperf. pass., cause movement toward a position, which may be used of a vigorous action (e.g. "cast, throw or hurl") or of a more subdued action (e.g. "put, place, lay or bring"). The second usage applies here. The pluperfect tense denotes action in the past that is complete and the results of the action in existence at some point in past time as indicated by the context. The passive form indicates the provision of assistance because of his physical condition.

at: Grk. pros, prep. See verse 1 above. his: Grk. autos, personal pronoun; the rich man. gate: Grk. pulōn, an entrance to the forecourt of a building. The term denotes 'the passage which led from the street through the front part of the house to the inner court,' closed by a heavy gate at the street (HELPS). The mention of the gate indicates that the house of the rich man was large. Geldenhuys says the term signified a high ornamented gate, indicating the luxury of the rich man's house.

21 and longing to be fed from that falling from the table of the rich man; but, even the dogs, coming, were licking his sores.

and: Grk. kai, conj. longing: Grk. epithumeō, pres. part., may mean (1) have a strong desire for, desire, long for; or (2) have inordinate desire, implying intent to acquire, covet, lust. The first meaning is intended here. to be fed: Grk. chortazō, aor. pass. inf., to have one's fill, be satisfied. from: Grk. apo, prep. See verse 3 above. that: Grk. ho, definite article but used here as a demonstrative pronoun. Some versions insert "crumbs." falling: Grk. piptō, pl. pres. part. See verse 17 above. from the table: Grk. trapeza, a surface on which something can be placed. In the LXX trapeza translates Heb. shulchan, table, generally a surface on which food is placed for eating (Ex 25:23).

In the Besekh trapeza is used of a dining table (Luke 22:30), a table for money transactions (Luke 19:23), and a table for the showbread in the tabernacle (Heb 9:2). Dining tables in ancient homes were low in relation to the floor at which persons reclined for eating. Edersheim says the low rectangle wooden table was common to the East with the dinner guests on three sides and one end open for the food service (815). Many versions insert words such as "crumbs," "bits of food," and "scraps" to describe what fell from the table.

of the rich man: Grk. ho plousios, adj. See verse 19 above. With the omission of anthrōpos the adjective is treated as a substantive. Jeremias comments that which fell were pieces of bread which the guests dipped in the dish, wiped their hands with and then threw under the table (184). After the meal the remains of bread lying on the floor would be gathered up and preserved (Berachot 52b; Chullin 105b). Hence the proverb, "Waste of bread in a house brings in poverty" (Pesachim 111b). How gladly Lazarus would have been to satisfy his hunger with the discarded bread, but the rich man took no thought of Lazarus.

but: Grk. alla, conj., adversative particle used adverbially to convey a different viewpoint for consideration; but, on the other hand. even: Grk. kai. the dogs: pl. of Grk. ho kuōn, a feral scavenging canine, dog, that HELPS describes as a "mooch pooch." According to the standards of Leviticus 11 the dog is an unclean animal. This term used here contrasts with kunarion, small dogs or puppies kept as house pets (Matt 15:26-27). In Greek literature kuōn was used for shepherd dogs, watch-dogs, and hounds.

coming: Grk. erchomai, pl. pres. part., to come or arrive from one place to another, with focus on a position from which action or movement takes place. The dogs were no doubt present to eat from the discarded food scraps and so reduced what might have been available to Lazarus. were licking: Grk. epileichō, impf., to pass the tongue over the surface of, lick. his: Grk. autos, personal pronoun. sores: pl. of Grk. ho helkos, ulcerated skin. Edersheim views this attention by dogs as negative, saying, "for it is not to be understood as an alleviation, but as an aggravation of his ills, that he was left to the dogs, which in Scripture are always represented as unclean animals" (IV:18).

Plummer also views the licking as increasing the misery of Lazarus. Licking wounds is instinctive for dogs, as most mammals, and can actually be beneficial. (See the article here on canine wound licking.) While the licking may have been experienced as a nuisance, the service could be viewed as the providence of God in contrast with the apathy of the rich man. There could also be a subtle hint of another truth. Jews routinely referred to Gentiles and the worst sinners as "dogs" (Ex 22:30; Ps 22:17; Isa 56:10-11; Matt 7:6; 15:26; Php 3:2-3; Gal 5:2-4; 2Pet 2:22; Rev 22:15). Yeshua reminds the Pharisees that being ministered to by unclean dogs did not disqualify Lazarus from eternal life.

Plummer observes "The silence of Lazarus throughout the parable is very impressive. He never murmurs against God's distribution of wealth, nor against the rich man's abuse of it, in this world."

22 Then it came to pass the poor man died and he was carried away by the angels into the bosom of Abraham. Now the rich man also died and was buried.

Then: Grk. de, conj. it came to pass: Grk. ginomai, aor. mid. See verse 11 above. The Greek construction egeneto de, which begins this verse, is a peculiar characteristic of Luke's writing style, appearing in the Besekh only in his writings, 17 times in this narrative of Yeshua and 20 times in Acts. This syntax is considered a Hebraism because it imitates the frequent use of the Heb. v'hayah, "and it came to pass" in the historical narratives of the Tanakh. The verb is used to advance the temporal setting and to introduce an important event that includes some dramatic action by God or an individual that impacts a biblical story or serves God's sovereign planning.

the poor man: Grk. ptōchos, adj. See verse 20 above; lit. "the poor one." died: Grk. apothnēskō (from apo, "from," and thnēskō, "to die," properly, die away from), aor. inf., "was to die," generally used of physical death, whether natural or violent, here the former. The verb stresses the significance of ending of what is former, namely life, to bring what naturally follows (HELPS). The infinitive may express purpose or result, here the latter, perhaps from a blood infection resulting from bacteria in the dog's saliva. Unstated is the biblical belief in death as being controlled by God (Deut 32:39; 1Sam 2:6).

and: Grk. kai, conj. he was carried away: Grk. apopherō (from apo, "from" and pherō, "to bear off"), aor. pass. inf., to take away or transport, and here in the graphic sense of "from the earth." There is no mentioned of whether Lazarus was buried, but such would be customary very soon after death. The implication is that at the moment of death the soul/spirit was separated from the dead body. by: Grk. hupo, prep., may be used as (1) a marker of agent or cause; by; or (2) as a marker of a position that is relatively lower; below, under. The first meaning applies here and stresses "under the authority of."

the angels: pl. of Grk. ho aggelos, messenger, messenger, whether human or divine, here referring to celestial beings from Heaven that serve God. See my article The Host of Heaven. The action here is consistent with the ministry of angels (cf. Matt 18:10; Heb 1:14). Frequent mention occurs in the Talmud of "the ministering angels" (Berachot 25b; Yoma 4b, 30a; 75b; Kiddushin 32b, 54a, 72a; Hagigah 12a, 14a-b, 16a; Ta'anith 11a; and Megillah 15b). The Targum on Song of Solomon 4:12 says that the souls of the righteous are carried to Paradise (Heb. Gan Eden) by angels.

into: Grk. eis, prep. the bosom: Grk. kolpos is used for (1) anatomical front of the human chest between the arms; chest, bosom, breast; or (2) the fold of a garment, formed as it falls from the chest over the girdle; fold, lap (Luke 6:38; cf. Ps 79:12). The first usage is intended with a figurative application. Some versions translate the noun as "side" (CEB, CJB, CSB, ESV, ISV, LEB, MRINT, NCB, NET, NIV, TLV). BAG interprets as the closest communion or a place of honor. Rienecker says the term is a Hebrew idiom that alludes to the intimate relationship of child and parent, or friend and friend (1:219). Plummer notes that the properties of bodies are attributed to souls in this parable in order to enable us to realize the picture.

of Abraham: Grk. Abraam, a transliteration of Heb. Avraham (SH-85), a personal name. The preeminent Hebrew patriarch, he was the son of Terah, a descendant of Noah's son, Shem (Gen 11:27). He grew up in Ur of the Chaldees, a prominent city of Shinar, later known as Babylonia. His birth name was Abram ("father is exalted"), but God later changed his name to Abraham ("father of a multitude") (Gen 17:5).

Abraham's inspirational story spans a significant portion of Genesis, Chapters 12 to 25. He was a prophet, a priest, an intercessor, a teacher and a peacemaker. Abraham was a godly and righteous man (Gen 26:5). His life and example testify of God's sovereign care and faithfulness. Abraham died at the age of 175 and was buried with his wife Sarah in the cave of Machpelah in Ephron by his sons Isaac and Ishmael (Gen 25:7-10). For more information on the great patriarch see my article The Story of Abraham.

Plummer says, "to repose on Abraham's bosom is to be in paradise, for Abraham is there (John 8:56)." Being thus welcomed essentially marks Lazarus as a "son of Abraham," a designation of faithfulness to God (cf. Matt 1:1; Luke 19:9). Jeremias says the idiom is a designation of the place of honor at the heavenly banquet at the right hand of Father Abraham; this place of honor, the highest that could be hoped for, indicates that Lazarus occupies the highest place in the assembly of the righteous (184).

The reward to Lazarus alludes to Yeshua's prophecy of a great feast, "I say to you that many will come from east and west, and recline at the table with Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in the kingdom of heaven" (Matt 8:11 NASU). Yeshua prophecy is in line with a comment in an early Jewish work, "For if we so die, Abraham and Isaac and Jacob will welcome us, and all the fathers will praise us" (4Macc 13:17). To lie in his bosom, as the apostle John did during the Messianic meal hosted by Yeshua (John 13:23), was to be there as the most favored guest. Thus, being at "Abraham's side" suggests being in Paradise.

This discussion begs the question of whether the righteous Israelites before Yeshua went to Heaven upon death. Patristic Christianity developed a doctrine called limbus patrum ("limbo of the fathers") which taught that heaven had been closed to humanity from the time of Adam's fall until the coming of the Messiah. All the righteous before Yeshua were in a state of blessedness, but not yet in Heaven. Once Yeshua ascended into heaven he brought all the deceased righteous with him to the presence of the Father.

Scripture provides many hints that Israelite saints could expect to be with God after death. Moses reported that "Enoch walked with God; and he was not, for God took him" (Gen 5:24). Job declared confidently, "Even after my skin is destroyed, yet from my flesh I shall see God" (Job 19:26). Hannah in her song of praise declared that "ADONAI kills and makes alive; He brings down to Sheol and raises up' (1Sam 2:6 BR). There is the report of Jeremiah that Elijah was transported into Heaven without dying (2Kgs 2:11).

Then there are various statements in the Wisdom literature:

"You will make known to me the path of life; in Your presence is fullness of joy; in Your right hand there are pleasures forever." (Ps 16:11 NASU)

"Surely goodness and mercy will follow me all the days of my life, and I will dwell in the House of ADONAI forever." (Ps 23:6 TLV).

"24 You guide me with Your counsel, and afterward You will take me into glory. 25 Whom have I in heaven but You? On earth there is none I desire besides You." (Ps 73:24-25 TLV).

"Who knows that the breath of man ascends upward and the breath of the beast descends downward to the earth?" (Eccl 3:2 NASU)

"5 For man goes to his eternal home while mourners go about in the street. … then the dust will return to the earth as it was, and the spirit will return to God who gave it." (Eccl 12:5, 7 NASU)

God promised Daniel that when he died he would "enter into rest" to await the resurrection (Dan 12:13). Paul wrote, "For he [Abraham] was looking for the city which has foundations, whose architect and builder is God" (Heb 11:10); and then he added, "to the general assembly and church of the firstborn who are enrolled in heaven, and to God, the Judge of all, and to the spirits of the righteous made perfect" (Heb 12:23 NASU).

In addition, the expression "bosom of Abraham" is very similar to John's post-ascension report of Yeshua "being in the bosom of the Father" (John 1:18), an allusion to being at the side of the Father in Heaven (Luke 22:69; Acts 2:33; 7:55; Heb 12:2). Yeshua will later promise the thief on the cross to be with him in Paradise that very day (Luke 23:43). Yeshua's spirit did not go to Sheol (cf. Ps 16:10; Acts 2:27, 31), but into the presence of his Father (Luke 23:46).

Paul associates "Paradise" with the third heaven (2Cor 12:4), which is the place of God's throne and the angels. The fact that Lazarus is carried by angels to the bosom of Abraham hints at the revelation that the angels have an important role in gathering the saints at the Second Coming (Matt 24:31; Mark 13:27). Most commentators associate the "bosom of Abraham" with heaven. Thus the parable anticipates Lazarus enjoying eternal blessedness, and the idiom is a very Jewish way of offering comfort about life after death.

Now: Grk. de. the rich man: Grk. ho plousios, adj. See verse 1 and 19 above; lit. "the rich one." also: Grk. kai. died: Grk. apothnēskō, aor. and was buried: Grk. thaptō, aor. pass., "honoring with funeral rites and internment," whether placing the remains under ground, or in an above ground tomb. The mention of the rich man's burial implies community recognition of his passing.

23 And in Hades having lifted up his eyes, being in torment; he saw Abraham from afar and Lazarus in his bosom.

And: Grk. kai, conj. in: Grk. en, prep. Hades: Grk. ho hadēs originally in Greek culture referred to the god of the underworld. In later Greek hadēs became associated with a locale (Danker). In the LXX hadēs occurs more than 100 times, primarily to translate Heb. Sheol, grave, underworld (DNTT 2:206). In the Tanakh Sheol is the world of the dead (first in Gen 37:35) and typically a subterranean place (Num 16:32-33; Isa 7:11; 14:15; 57:9; Ezek 31:14; 32:21; Ps 86:13).

Some versions inaccurately translate the term here as "hell" (BRG, CEV, EHV, GW, KJV, TLB, MSG, NOG, NLV, NMB, RGT). The word for "hell" is gehenna and Hades is not a synonym of gehenna. While some of the description of gehenna that Yeshua gave (Matt 5:22; Mark 9:43) is similar to Hades, gehenna really corresponds to the lake of fire, the final place of punishment after the millennial reign (Rev 19:20; 20:10, 14-15). See the discussion on Hades in Luke 10:15.

having lifted up: Grk. epairō, aor. part., to lift up or raise up over. his: Grk. autos, personal pronoun. eyes: pl. of Grk. ho ophthalmos, the anatomical organ of the eye, and fig. of perception or insight. Eyesight gives the body the capacity to apprehend surroundings and move through spatial or environmental structures. Again the mention of a body part is important to the message of the parable. being: Grk. huparchō, pres. part. See verse 1 above. in: Grk. en, prep. torment: pl. of Grk. basanos, severe pain associated with punishment, torment, torture.

Plummer notes that the rich man is punished for his heartless neglect of great opportunities of benevolence, and not simply for being rich, is clear from the position of Abraham, who was rich. It may seem strange that in using the word Sheol, Yeshua would suggest it was a place of torment. Use of the term by the patriarchs was simply as a condition after death (Gen 37:35; 42:38; 44:29, 31). However, the first indication of Sheol as a place of punishment is in Numbers 16:30-33 when God acted in wrath against the priest Korah and his relatives for daring to oppose Moses. They "went down alive into Sheol" (Num 16:33).

Then later ADONAI expressed His anger against the rebellious wilderness generation by saying, "For a fire is kindled in My anger, and burns to the lowest part of Sheol, and consumes the earth with its yield, and sets on fire the foundations of the mountains" (Deut 32:22; cf. Isa 38:18). The "lowest part" is later referred to as the "pit" (Heb. bohr; LXX abussos) where all the pagan nations are imprisoned (Ezek 26:20-21; 32:17-30). Plummer notes that in the Psalms of Solomon Hades is mentioned only in connection with the idea of punishment (14:6; 15:11; 16:2).

he saw: Grk. horaō, pres., to perceive physically with the eye, or in a fig. sense to experience something or to have extraordinary mental or inward perception. Abraham: Grk. Abraam. See the previous verse. from: Grk. apo, prep. afar: Grk. makrothen, adv., from a distance, from afar. The adverb denotes such a great distance as to be humanly impossible to bridge. and: Grk. kai. Lazarus: Grk. Lazaros. See verse 20 above. in: Grk. en; i.e. "against or at." his: Grk. autos. bosom: Grk. kolpos. See the previous verse. Bible versions are divided between "bosom" and "side." Shapira observes that this verse is an example of direct parallels between the apostolic writings and the Talmud, i.e. Kiddushin 72b, which mentions "the bosom of Abraham" (37).

Geldenhuys comments that being strictly a parable and not a real occurrence that the purpose is not to give information about the unseen world. Are we to assume that Yeshua gave invented information when he speaks plainly about the torment of the place of punishment elsewhere (Matt 8:12; 13:42; Luke 13:28)? Even in a parable Yeshua speaks of reality, not fantasy. Probably those in Hades cannot actually see into Heaven, but granting the rich man the ability to see into Heaven facilitates the lesson of the parable.

24 And he having called out said, 'Father Abraham, have mercy on me, and send Lazarus so that he may dip the tip of his finger in water and cool my tongue, for I am suffering in this flame.'

And: Grk. kai, conj. he: Grk. autos, personal pronoun. having called out: Grk. phōneō, aor. part. See verse 2 above. said: Grk. legō, aor. See verse 1 above. Father: Grk. patēr, voc., normally used of a male biological parent. In this case the noun emphasizes ancestry (cf. John 8:39) as well as an appeal for compassion. Abraham: Grk. Abraam, voc. See verse 22 above. have mercy on: Grk. eleeō, aor. imp., to have pity or mercy on, to show mercy. The general meaning is to have compassion or mercy on a person in unhappy circumstances (Zodhiates). me: Grk. egō, first person pronoun. The appeal presumes Abraham can act as a mediator with God, as he did on two occasions (Gen 18:23-33; 20:7, 17).

and send: Grk. pempō, aor. imp., to send, typically dispatched on a temporary errand. Lazarus: Grk. Lazaros. See verse 20 above. so that: Grk. hina, conj. See verse 4 above. he may dip: Grk. baptō, aor. subj., put something in liquid to moisten it; dip, dip in. the tip: Grk. ho akron, extremity, applied to vertical or horizontal things, here the extreme limit; end, tip. of his: Grk. autos. finger: Grk. ho daktulos, a terminal member of the hand, finger. in water: Grk. hudōr, the physical element of water. and cool: Grk. katapsuchō, aor. subj., cool off, refresh. The verb occurs only here in the Besekh.

my: Grk. egō. tongue: Grk. glōssa, tongue, here referring to the anatomical organ of the mouth used in tasting, eating and speaking. The rich man seems to view a single drop of water as possessing significant power to bring relief to his body. And, where would Lazarus find water? The request is a mark of the rich man's arrogance that he would view Lazarus as his servant (Levine). for: Grk. hoti, conj. See verse 3 above. I am suffering: Grk. odunaō, pres. mid., to be in pain, whether physically or emotionally; to be in anguish and tormented. in: Grk. en, prep. this: Grk. houtos, demonstrative pronoun.

flame: Grk. phlox (from phlegō, "to burn or be aflame"), a gaseous blaze produced by combustion or fire; flame. While the appeal could refer to suffering from remorse and guilt, it' more likely that Hades is characterized by burning. Otherwise, why ask for water? Just as the soul-spirit is corporeal, so is the fire of Hades, and it has such an atomic structure as to inflict pain on the soul. The presence of burning in Hades is revealed in the Torah, "For a fire is kindled in My anger, And burns to the lowest part of Sheol [LXX Hades], and consumes the earth with its yield, and sets on fire the foundations of the mountains" (Deut 32:22 NASU).

The punishing fire is also mentioned in Sirach 28:21-22; 51:3-5. The existence of heat and flame is especially emphasized in reference to the "bottomless pit:" "He opened the bottomless pit, and smoke went up out of the pit, like the smoke of a great furnace; and the sun and the air were darkened by the smoke of the pit" (Rev 9:2 NASU).

25 But Abraham said, 'Child, remember that in your lifetime you received your good things, and Lazarus likewise bad things; but now he is being comforted here, and you are suffering.

But: Grk. de, conj. Abraham: Grk. Abraam. See verse 22 above. said: Grk. legō, aor. See verse 1 above. child: Grk. teknon, voc., child or offspring of undetermined age beyond infancy without regard to sex, and used here as a term of endearment. Liefeld comments that like the identical term on the lips of the Prodigal Son's father (15:31), conveys something of the compassion God himself shows even to those who spurn him. Abraham does not resent the appeal to relationship: the refusal is as gentle as it is decided (Plummer). Justice is not a slave to sentiment. remember: Grk. mimnéskó, aor. pass. imp., be mindful, call to mind, remember.

that: Grk. hoti, conj. in: Grk. en, prep. your: Grk. su, second person pronoun. lifetime: Grk. ho zōē, state of being alive in the normal physical sense; here lifetime. you received: Grk. apolambanō, aor., to receive, here with an aspect of requital. The prefix apo signifies received in full. Nothing was stored up for the future. your: Grk. su. good things: n. pl. of Grk. agathos, adj., meeting a high standard of excellence; beneficial, helpful, good. Liefeld notes that the possessive pronoun in "your good things" is similar in its force to the words "for himself" in Luke 12:21. This is a reminder that wealth in itself is not evil, and God provides the ability to gain wealth (Deut 8:18). However, the rich man's heart was evil so he did not do good with the bounty God supplied.

and: Grk. kai, conj. Lazarus: Grk. Lazaros. See verse 20 above. likewise: Grk. homoiōs, adv., in like manner, similarly. bad things: n. pl. of Grk. kakos, adj., may mean morally reprehensible, causing physical harm, or misfortune, here the latter. There is no explanation of how the misfortune occurred in the life of Lazarus or the cause of his physical condition. There is no reason to assume that bad things happened to him because he had sinned (cf. John 9:1-3). God had promised Israel that obeying the commandment for observing the Sabbatical year would result in no poverty (Deut 15:4). However, Israel's leaders did not keep the Sabbatical years so the people suffered and poverty became a regular part of Israelite culture (cf. Deut 15:11; John 12:8).

but: Grk. de. now: Grk. nun, marker of time in the present, now, or emphatically 'just now.' he is comforted: Grk. parakaleō, pres. pass., may mean (1) call to be at one's side; (2) hearten in time of trouble; comfort, console; or (3) to motivate performance; exhort, encourage, urge. The second meaning applies here. The promise of Paradise is relief from suffering and pain (Isa 25:8; Rev 21:4). here: Grk. hōde, adv., in this place. and you are suffering: Grk. odunaō, pres. mid. See the previous verse. God does not allow favoritism to prejudice justice (Lev 19:15), so the previous status of the rich man carries no weight of influence in Hades.

Plummer comments that "Abraham's reply must be considered in close relation to the rich man's request. Dives had not asked to be freed from his punishment. He accepted that as just. He had asked for a slight alleviation, and in a way which involved an interruption of the bliss of Lazarus. Abraham replies that to interfere with the lot of either is both unreasonable and impossible. Dives had unbroken luxury, and Lazarus unbroken suffering, in the other world. There can be no break in the pangs of Dives, or in the bliss of Lazarus, now."

26 And in all these things, between us and you a great chasm has been fixed, so that those wishing to pass through from here to you are not able, nor from there can they pass to us.'

And: Grk. kai, conj. in: Grk. en, prep. Most versions render the preposition as "besides," even though that is not its meaning. The term figuratively means "in the realm of," as in the state in which something operates from the inside" (HELPS). all: pl. of Grk. pas, adj. See verse 14 above. these things: pl. of Grk. houtos, demonstrative pronoun. See verse 1 above. DLNT has "these regions." The pronoun refers back to the condition of Hades and Paradise which offer dramatically different experiences. between: Grk. metaxu, prep., between, a marker noting a point at which one entity is separate from another, used here in a spatial sense.

us: Grk. hēmeis, pl. first person pronoun. In the proximate sense the plural pronoun refers to Abraham and Lazarus, but it would also extend to all the residents of Paradise. and you: Grk. humeis, pl. second person pronoun. The plural form alludes to the fact that the rich man was not alone in Hades. a great: Grk. megas, adj., exceeding a standard and therefore impressive, used here in a spatial sense of distance. chasm: Grk. chasma, deep and open place, impassable interval. The term occurs only here in the Besekh. has been fixed: Grk. stērizō, perf. pass., cause to be inwardly firm or committed; establish, fix, strengthen, set fast. The word picture is not just simply a distance humanly impossible to traverse. Rather once entering the abode of the after life one is not able to leave.

so that: Grk. hopōs, adv., in order that, so that. This adverb is stronger than simple "that," because it emphasizes the method involved to accomplish the objective at hand (HELPS). those: pl. of Grk. ho, definite article but used here as a demonstrative pronoun. wishing: Grk. thelō, pl. pres. part., to have a desire for something or have a purpose for something; will, wish, desire. to pass through: Grk. diabainō, aor. inf., to cross over, to pass through, to go across. from here: Grk. enthen, adv., from here, from this place. to: Grk. pros, prep. See verse 1 above.

you: Grk. humeis. are not: Grk. mē, adv., a particle of qualified negation, ruling out any implications that could be involved with what should (could, would) apply; no, not, lest (HELPS). able: Grk. dunamai, pres. subj. mid. See verse 2 above. nor: Grk. mēde, adv., negative particle used in escalation of negation; not, nor. from there: Grk. ekeithen, adv., denotes movement from a place or time, here the former; lit. "from that place, from there." can they pass: Grk. diaperaō, pres. subj., 3p-pl., to cross or pass over. As a nautical term the verb functions as kind of an understatement for a lengthy voyage.

to: Grk. pros. us: Grk. hēmeis. Abraham refers not merely to himself and Lazarus but those in Paradise. Abraham speaks of the reality that death will separate families and friends, not just in their temporal existence, but in their permanent eternal abode. This is another reason God will wipe away tears (Rev 21:4), because knowing one's family members do not share Paradise would bring on unceasing sorrow.

27 So he said, 'I beg you therefore father, that you send him to the house of my father,

So: Grk. de, conj. he said: Grk. legō, aor. See verse 1 above. The subject of the verb is the rich man. I beg: Grk. erōtaō, pres., can mean (1) to ask with the focus on seeking information; or (2) to ask in the sense of making a request, frequently with the effort to soften the tone for what might sound peremptory. The second meaning applies here. you: Grk. su, second person pronoun. therefore: Grk. oun, conj. See verse 11 above. father: Grk. patēr, voc. See verse 24 above. that: Grk. hina, conj. you send: Grk. pempō, aor. subj. See verse 24 above. him: Grk. autos, personal pronoun; Lazarus.

to: Grk. eis, prep. the house: Grk. ho oikos. See verse 4 above. of my: Grk. egō, first person pronoun. father: Grk. patēr. The rich man does not imply that his natural father is still alive, but he alludes to the house inherited from his father. The rich man was apparently willing to accept the reality of his condition, so he asks for an equally impossible task for Lazarus. It is not clear whether he proposes a bodily resurrection or a spirit visitation as occurred when King Saul called forth Samuel from the dead (1Sam 28:11-15).

28 for I have five brothers, so that he may warn them, that they might not also come to this place of torment.’

for: Grk. gar, conj. See verse 2 above. I have: Grk. echō, pres. See verse 1 above. five: Grk. pente, the number five. brothers: pl. of Grk. adelphos, a male sibling; brother. In the apostolic narratives adelphos primarily refers to blood siblings or fellow Israelites by virtue of descent from Jacob. The rich man may have been the firstborn, which partly accounts for his wealth. Two women in the Tanakh are noted for having six sons, Leah, wife of Jacob (Gen 30:20), and Azel, a descendant of King Saul through Jonathan (1Chr 8:38).

so that: Grk. hopōs, adv. See verse 26 above. he may warn: Grk. diamarturomai (from dia, "thoroughly" and marturomai, "witness, testify"), pres. mid. subj., an emphatic declaration establishing the importance of what is stated, giving full, clear testimony. The middle voice emphasizes witnessing done with a high level of strong personal interest motivating it (HELPS). Many versions translate the verb as "warn" due to the purpose of the rich man's request. them: pl. of Grk. autos, personal pronoun. that: Grk. hina, conj. they: pl. of Grk. autos. might not: Grk. mē, adv. also: Grk. kai. come: Grk. erchomai, aor. subj., 3p-pl. See verse 21 above. to: Grk. eis, prep., lit. "into."

this: Grk. houtos, demonstrative pronoun. place: Grk. ho topos, is used primarily to mean a spatial area, as a locality or a location for some activity. of torment: Grk. ho basanos. See verse 23 above. The request may reflect the Pharisee demand for signs to validate Yeshua's identity as Messiah (Luke 11:16, 29). Nevertheless, the request implies a positive relationship between the rich man and his siblings and is a believable attempt to prevent his brothers from experiencing the same fate. Plummer suggests the request prepares the way for the moral of the parable,-the duty of making use of existing opportunities.

29 But Abraham said, 'They have Moses and the Prophets; let them hear them.'

But: Grk. de, conj. Abraham said: Grk. legō, pres. See verse 1 above. They have: Grk. echō, pres., 3p-pl. See verse 1 above. Moses: Grk. Mōusēs, which transliterates Heb. Mosheh, the son of Amram and Jochebed of the tribe of Levi (Ex 6:20; Num 26:59). The name Moses may be derived from Egyptian mes meaning "child" or "son" (BDB 602), since the daughter of Pharaoh named him (Ex 2:10). She explained the chosen name by saying, "Because I drew [Heb. mashah, "to draw"] him out of the water." Josephus offers a slightly different account of the naming:

"Hereupon it was that Thermuthis [the daughter of Pharaoh] imposed this name Mouses upon him, from what had happened when he was put into the river; for the Egyptians call water by the name of Mo, and such as are saved out of it, by the name of Uses: so by putting these two words together, they imposed this name upon him." (Ant. II, 9:5)

The story of Moses is found in the extensive narratives from Exodus 1:1 through Deuteronomy 34:1. His life of 120 years can be divided into three 40-year periods, the first being his birth and early life in Egypt (c. 1525−1485 B.C.; Ex 2:11; Acts 7:23), the second his years in Midian (c. 1485−1445 B.C.; Ex 7:7; Acts 7:30), and the third from the Exodus from Egypt through the years spent in the wilderness until his death (c. 1445−1405 B.C.; Ex 16:35; Deut 34:7; Acts 7:36).

Moses was the leader of the Israelites in their journey from Egypt through the wilderness to the Jordan River. Most importantly Moses served as God's spokesman to facilitate the beginning of the covenant relationship between God and Israel. Through Moses God communicated His instructions to Israel. Moses was a heroic leader of the people and a devout man of God. For a summary and analysis of his life and deeds see my article Moses, Servant of God. Here the mention of Moses substitutes for "Torah" in verse 16 above and alludes to the first division of the Hebrew Bible.

and: Grk. kai, conj. the Prophets: pl. of Grk. ho prophētēs. See verse 16 above. The term again refers to the second division of the Hebrew Bible. let them hear: Grk. akouō, aor. imp., 3p-pl. See verse 2 above. them: pl. of Grk. autos, personal pronoun. The verbal clause may allude to the reading of Scripture in synagogue services, as well as to paying heed to God's message to Israel in those books. Yeshua again affirms the authority of the Scriptures, because in keeping them there is life (Deut 18:15-19; 32:39, 46-47; cf. John 5:39; 12:50; 2Tim 3:16; 2Pet 1:20-21).

30 And he said, 'No, father Abraham, but if someone should go to them from the dead, they will repent!'

And: Grk. de, conj. he said: Grk. legō, aor. See verse 1 above. No: Grk. ouchi, adv., a negative particle and a strengthened form of ou; not, not at all, definitely not. The effect of the negative particle is to dismiss something as non-factual (HELPS). father Abraham: See verse 24 above. The rich man contradicts Abraham, but Plummer suggests the negative response means, "No, it is not enough." but: Grk. alla, conj. See verse 21 above. if: Grk. ean, conj., lit. "if," a particle that introduces a conditional particle that produces an aspect of tentativeness by introducing a possible circumstance that determines the realization of some other circumstance, such as "if x happens, y will follow."

someone: Grk. tis, indefinite pronoun. Note that he does not specify Lazarus. should go: Grk. poreuomai, aor. pass. subj., to make one's way or move from one area to another; go, journey, proceed, or travel. to: Grk. pros, prep. See verse 3 above. The preposition stresses a face-to-face encounter. them: pl. of Grk. autos, personal pronoun. from: Grk. apo, prep. the dead: Grk. nekros, adj., without life in the physical sense; being dead. The great majority of versions translate the noun as "the dead," even though there is no definite article. The adjective is not used to denote the place of the dead, but rather the state of death. GNT has "death."

they will repent: Grk. metanoeō, fut., 3p-pl., to have a serious change of mind and heart about a previous point of view or course of behavior; repent. The present tense in this context could indicate action relative to a specific transgression or habitual action as a manifestation of spiritual health. In Scripture repentance is not simply regret or being sorry for past behavior. Rather repentance is action taken to remedy failure by getting right with God. Thus, in Scripture genuine repentance consists of three elements:

(1) recognizing one's behavior as sinful (Luke 5:32);

(2) committing to cease sinful conduct (John 5:14; 8:11); and

(3) becoming obedient to God's commandments (Luke 3:8).

If any of these elements is missing repentance is not considered genuine, but deceitful. Repentance requires honest self-evaluation, which should lead the sincere person to identify any number of faults for which confession is necessary. Especially important is a commitment to change, to stop sinful practices (Isa 1:16; 55:7). The rich man is not clear about how repentance will be manifested among his brothers. He is simply confident that his brothers would make the necessary changes to assure Paradise after death. Repentance might mean doing what the elder brother never did, honoring God with their wealth and considering the needs of the poor.

Ellicott notes that Herod had given credence, when he heard of the miracles Yeshua performed, to the belief that Yochanan the Immerse was "risen from the dead" (Luke 9:7-8), and yet that belief had not brought him one step nearer to repentance." Gill suggests that the rich man knew his brothers were a rebellious, and stiffnecked people, and would not hear Moses and the Prophets.

31 But he said to him, 'If they do not heed Moses and the Prophets, they will not even be persuaded if someone should rise from death.'"

But: Grk. de, conj. he said: Grk. legō, aor. See verse 1 above. The subject of the verb is Abraham. to him: Grk. autos, personal pronoun; the rich man. If: Grk. ei, conj. See verse 11 above. they do not: Grk. ou, adv. heed: Grk. akouō, pres., 3p-pl. See verse 2 above. Moses: Grk. Mōusēs. See verse 29 above. and: Grk. kai, conj. the Prophets: pl. of Grk. prophētēs. See verse 16 above. Abraham speaking for God asserts again the continuing authority of the Scriptures, especially in relation to prophecies of the Messiah. Eventually the biblical prophecy would be replaced in Rabbinic Judaism by the authority of the Sages (Baba Bathra 12a), but that attitude was already present among the Pharisees ( cf. Isa 29:13; Matt 15:3, 6).

they will not even: Grk. oude, adv., negative particle that links a negative statement as complementary to a preceding negative; neither, not even, nor. be persuaded: Grk. peithō, fut. pass., 3p-pl., to bring about a convinced state in regard to something; here to have confidence in. if: Grk. ean, conj. See the previous verse. someone: Grk. tis, indefinite pronoun. should rise: Grk. anistēmi, aor. subj., to rise, stand up or get up and in its ordinary use refers to the physical motion of transition from a sitting or recumbent position or simply standing. In the Besekh the verb anistēmi is used 31 times (out of 108) in an idiomatic sense of restoring to life after death, mostly of Yeshua's own resurrection.

from: Grk. ek, prep. See verse 4 above. death: Grk. nekros. See the previous verse. The term is used here of the state of death. Most versions have "the dead" but four versions have "death" (GNT, ICB, NMB, WE). Previous to this occasion Yeshua had resurrected the widow's son in Nain (Luke 7:14-15) and Lazarus in Bethany (John 11:43-44). The latter case did not change hearts of the Pharisees, but in fact made them more determined to kill Yeshua (John 11:45-53)

Liefeld observes that this unchangeability of the rich man's brothers came from a hardness not only toward Yeshua but toward "Moses and the Prophets" (verse 29 above; cf. John 5:46). Not even a spectacular "sign," like one returning from the dead (vv. 27, 30), can change those whose hearts are set against God's word, as the response of many to the resurrection of Yeshua was to show.

Works Cited

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