Notes on Ruth 1

Blaine Robison, M.A.

Published 25 August 2026

Scripture Text: The Scripture text of this commentary is prepared by Blaine Robison based on the Westminster Leningrad Codex found at BibleHub.com. The essentially literal translation seeks to reflect the Hebraic character of the author and writing. Other Bible versions may be quoted. Click here for Abbreviations of Bible Versions.

Sources: Important Jewish sources include the following:

● LXX: The abbreviation "LXX" ("70") stands for the Septuagint, the Jewish translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, which was in use among Jews by the mid-2nd century B.C. Online.

● Josephus: The Works of Flavius Josephus (c. 75–99 A.D.), Jewish historian, trans. William Whiston (1737). Online.

● MT: The Masoretic Text is the authoritative Hebrew text of the Tanakh for Rabbinic Judaism. Work on developing a uniform Hebrew Bible began in the 2nd century under Rabbi Akiva, but completed by Jewish scholars known as the Masoretes between the 7th and 10th centuries A.D. The oldest extant manuscripts date from around the 9th century. Online.

● Talmud: Unless otherwise indicated references to the Talmud are from the Soncino Babylonian Talmud (1948); available online at Halakhah.com. The Jerusalem Talmud, identified with "TJ," may be found here. Click here for Talmud abbreviations.

Special Terms: In order to emphasize the Hebraic nature of Scripture I use the terms ADONAI (for the sacred name YHVH), Tanakh (Old Testament), Besekh (New Testament), Yeshua (Jesus) and Messiah (Christ).

Syntax: Unless otherwise noted the meaning of Hebrew words is from The New Brown, Driver, Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon (1981). Parsing information for Hebrew verbs is taken from John Joseph Owens, Analytical Key to the Old Testament (1989). An explanation of Hebrew verbs and grammatical construction can be found at Hebrew4Christians.com.

See the article Introduction to Ruth for background information on the book of Ruth.

Chapter Summary

Chapter One introduces a family from Bethlehem: Elimelech, his wife Naomi, and their two sons, Mahlon and Chilion. When a severe famine comes upon the land the family leaves Israel to sojourn in Moab. Here the two sons marry local women, Orpah and Ruth; and, in the space of ten years, both Elimelech and the sons die. Naomi sets out to return to her own country, initially accompanied by her daughters-in-law. Naomi attempts to persuade them to return to their own people. Orpah decides to return, but Ruth makes a fervent commitment to remain with Naomi. The two women arrive at Bethlehem in the time of the barley harvest.

Chapter Outline

Sojourn in Moab, 1:1-5

Plan for Return to Judah, 1:6-13

Loyalty of Ruth, 1:14-18

Arrival in Bethlehem, 1:19-22

Sojourn in Moab, 1:1-5

1 And it came to pass in the days of the judging of the judges, that there was a famine in the land. And a certain man went from Bethlehem in Judah to dwell in the land of Moab, he and his wife and two of his sons.

Reference: Judges 2:16.

And it came to pass: Heb. hayah, Qal cons. impf., to be, become, come to pass, exist, happen. The verb used in the historical narratives of the Tanakh (185 times; first in Gen 4:8). The phrase is used to signal a change in the narrative, to advance the temporal setting and to introduce an important event that includes some dramatic action by God or an individual that impacts biblical history or serves God's sovereign planning. The verb is a consecutive imperfect, as are most of the verbs in this chapter. The imperfect tense may portray an action as incomplete, ongoing, habitual, repeated, or not yet realized. The consecutive stem added to the verb is used in narrative primarily to denote sequences of consecutive actions. So the chapter is a straight-forward chronology of events.

in the days: pl. of Heb. yom, day. The Hebrews did not conceive of time in the abstract, but used yom overwhelmingly in the sense of ordinary measurable time. Yom occurs 2,203 times in the Tanakh. Out of these occurrences about 90% refer to a calendar event or some portion of a 24-hour day. The expression "in the days" refers to a definite period in Israelite history with a beginning and an end. of the judging: Heb. shaphat, Qal inf., to judge or govern. The verb is used to mean (1) act as law-giver, judge, governor (giving law, deciding controversies and executing law); (2) specifically decide a controversy, discriminate between persons, in civil, political, domestic and religious questions; or (3) execute judgment.

of the judges: Heb. shaphat, pl. Qal participle, lit. "the judging ones." The Hebrew term means one who judges or governs. The judges received a divine call to office with the mission to deliver from oppressors, to act as a ruler, to decide controversies, to enforce judicial decisions, and to act as God's agent. The various judges performed these responsibilities in various degrees. Not all deliverers performed judicial functions, none of the judges ruled all of the tribes and not all are credited with great deeds. The period of the judges covers the time period from the death of Joshua (Jdg 2:8-10) to the accession of King Saul (1Sam 12:11-13; Acts 13:20).

The book of Judges covers about 350 years and only a small amount of that time is recorded. As a historical retrospective Judges recounts a repetitive cycle of abandonment of worshipping ADONAI in favor of pagan deities, oppression by various pagan powers, then deliverance by a judge followed by a period of peace, and after the death of the judge the cycle starting again (cf. Jdg 2:10-23). Indeed Judges asserts that a lack of respect for the Torah dominated Israel during this period (cf. Deut 12:8; Jdg 17:6; 21:25). Judges provides the stories of twelve judge-deliverers and their duration (Othniel, Ehud, Shamgar, Deborah/Barak, Gideon, Abimelech, Tola, Jair, Jephthah, Ibzan, Elon, Abdon, and Samson).

Two other judges followed Samson and preceded the monarchy: Eli, the high priest at Shiloh (1Sam 4:18) and Samuel (1Sam 7:15; 12:11). Josephus, the first century Jewish historian, places the story of Ruth during the administration of Eli (Ant. V, 9:1-2). The author of Ruth does not specify the judge in power at the time of the story, perhaps because the judge not being a character in the story and his identity is irrelevant to the message of the story. The report of the moral corruption of Eli's administration would have been a distraction in the book of Ruth, so Samuel did not record the report until it could be put into historical context.

that there was a famine: Heb. ra'av, famine, hunger. The term refers to a severe condition of misery caused by an acute lack of food that can lead to malnutrition, starvation and death and impacting a large area. Famine may be caused by lack of adequate rainfall (1Kgs 18:1-3; Jer 14:1-4; Hag 1:11), destructive hail storms (Ex 9:23; 10:12-15), infestation of insects (Ex 10:15) and as a result of warfare by enemies consuming or destroying available food sources (Deut 28:49-51; 2Kgs 6:25). Down through history a shortage of food has also been caused by hoarding (cf. Luke 12:18).

in the land: Heb. erets generally designates either (a) the earth in a cosmological sense, or (b) "the land" in the sense of a specific territorial area, primarily the Land of Israel (BDB 75). The focus is on the land of Israel where it may have been confined. There is no implication that the famine was of the widespread severity experienced by Jacob and his family (Gen 41:56-57). Clarke suggests the famine occurred as a result of pagan enemies destroying crops, such as occurred in the time of Gideon (cf. Jdg 6:1-4). The famine could also have been a divine judgment as in the days of Elijah (1Kgs 17:1), which in effect instigated the whole history of the book of Ruth.

And a man: Heb. ish, an adult male as distinct from woman or a young boy (Gen 2:23), often used to refer to a married man; husband (Gen 3:16). The man is identified in the next verse. went: Heb. halak, Qal cons. impf., to go, walk, come, proceed, or move. from Bethlehem: Heb. Beit-Lechem, lit. "house of bread." Situated five miles south of Jerusalem the village is first mentioned in Scripture as the location of Rachel's death (Gen 35:19). According to Ezra the town of Bethlehem was founded by Salmon, grandson of Caleb (1Chr 2:50-51). Morris notes that the home of Elimelech and later of Ruth was also destined to be the birthplace of King David (1Sam 16:11) and eventually of the Messiah (Mic 5:2) (DSB 312).

in Judah: Heb. Y'hudah, son of Jacob and progenitor of the tribe of Judah, but here the land allocated to the tribe of Judah (Joshua 15). See the map here. The location reference implies that the man belonged to the tribe of Judah. to dwell: Heb. gur, Qal inf., to sojourn, dwell, reside, live as a foreigner. in the territory: Heb. sadeh, countryside, field or open country. The term can also refer to land adjacent to a city, the territory of a nation or tribe or the territory of a king (BDB 961). No precise location is given.

of Moab: Heb. Moab, a territory named for the son of Lot and his firstborn daughter (Gen 19:37). This background made the Moabites a Semitic people and kin to the Hebrews. See the map and encyclopedia article here. Originally Moab was bordered on the west by the Dead Sea, extending from a point some distance North of it to its southern end. The eastern boundary was indefinite, being the border of the desert which is irregular. The length of the territory was about 50 miles and the average width about 30.

By the time of the exodus half of Moab had been conquered by the Amorites who were then defeated by the Israelites under Moses. Thus, Moab was confined south of the Arnon River to the southern end of the Dead Sea (Num 21:23; Jdg 11:18). There was also a city in Moab with the same name (Num 22:36). The Moabites were an idolatrous people, worshiping the pagan deity Chemosh, which was associated with detestable and immoral practices, including child sacrifice (Num 21:29; 1Kgs 11:7; 2Kgs 3:26-27; 23:13; Jer 48:13).

The post-exodus narratives present the Moabites as adversaries of Israel during the wilderness years. When Balak son of Zippor, king of Moab, saw the Israelites settling within his border, he made an alliance with the Midianites against them and hired Balaam to curse them (Numbers 22−24). This conspiracy failed to defeat Israel, but the Israelites suffered divine judgment after being enticed into idolatrous and immoral relations with Moabite women (Numbers 26).

While encamped on the plains of Moab across from Jericho God gave the Israelites contrasting directives to govern their relations with the Moabites:

"Do not harass Moab, and do not contend with them in war, for I will not give you any of their land as a possession, because to the sons of Lot I have given Ar as a possession." (Deut 2:9 BR)

"An Ammonite or a Moabite shall not enter the assembly of ADONAI; even to the tenth generation, none shall enter the assembly of ADONAI even to forever, 4 on account of the matter that they did not meet you with bread and with water on the journey when you came out of Egypt, and because they hired against you Balaam the son of Beor from Pethor of Mesopotamia, to curse you." (Deut 23:3-4 BR)

During the time of the judges Moab once again became an adversary of Israel. Eglon, King of Moab, oppressed Israel with the aid of Ammon and Amalek (Jdg 3:13-14), but Eglon was assassinated by the Israelite judge Ehud, and the Moabite yoke was cast off after 18 years. Thus, the story of Ruth occurs during a time of peace between Moab and Israel. Since the story of Ruth involves the tradition of Levirate marriage, then there is a certain irony in the man moving to Moab since the Moabites were the result of a "Levirate" marriage. In the account of Lot impregnating his two daughters after the destruction of Sodom, the daughters had been betrothed (Gen 19:14), which in biblical times constituted a legal marriage.

Why the sons-in-law did not go with Lot and their wives is not explained. In any event after their husbands were killed the daughters took matters into their own hands. The motive for their union was not lust, but probably fear that no man would have them, assuming them to be cursed because of coming from the destroyed city of Sodom. Lot was the nearest male relative, so the reasoning of his daughters to become pregnant by him is understandable and completely in accord with ancient custom.

The marriage prohibitions given to Israel at Mt. Sinai after the exodus regarding intimate relations and marriage with close family members would preclude a father-daughter marriage (Lev 18:6). However, God's laws are not applied ex post facto, or retroactively. Lot and his daughters cannot be charged with the sin of incest as evident from the fact that Scripture contains no censure of them and Peter clearly identified Lot as a righteous man (2Pet 2:7).

he: Heb. hu, pronoun, he, the same, who. and his wife: Heb. ishshah, woman, wife and usually of a married woman. Being a wife meant the woman belonged fully and exclusively to her man, her husband. and two of his sons: pl. of Heb. ben, a male offspring, "son or son of," which is used in three distinctive ways: (1) to identify direct paternity, as the son of his father (Gen 5); (2) a descendant of a more distant ancestor (e.g., Gen 32:32), or (3) to mean in a broader sense of having the characteristics of (e.g., Ps 89:22; Dan 3:25).

Josephus says that Elimelech made the decision to move because the famine deprived his ability to support his family and he was under extreme distress. The entire nuclear family moved to Moab. The specific mention may imply that this decision was not shared by relatives in the extended family or other Israelites, since there could have been lingering resentment against the Moabites for past oppression in the time of Ehud (Jdg 3:12-30). Conversely, drought and famine in ancient times caused population migration, such as when Jacob moved his entire family to Egypt in time of famine (Gen 46:5-7, 27). Elimelech may not have been the only Israelite to take his family where they could be fed.

2 And the name of the man was Elimelech, and the name of his wife, Naomi; and the names of his two sons were Mahlon and Chilion, Ephrathites of Bethlehem in Judah. Now they entered the territory of Moab and remained there.

And the name: Heb. shem, a name, that is, a word or a combination of words by which a person, place, or thing is designated, called, or known; also the reputation of a particular kind given by common opinion. of the man: Heb. ha-ish. See the previous verse. was Elimelech: Heb. Eliymelek ("my God is king"). With such a name we may assume that Elimelech was a devout man of God. His name contrasts with Abimelech ("my father is king"), son of Gideon, who appointed himself as king of Shechem and ruled as a tyrant (Jdg 9:1-6). and the name: Heb. shem. of his wife: Heb. ishshah. See the previous verse. Naomi: Heb. Naômi ("pleasant").

and the name: Heb. shem. of his two: Heb. shenayim, the number two, a cardinal number. sons: pl. of Heb. ben. See the previous verse. Mahlon: Heb. Machlôn ("sickly"). Being listed before his brother implies he was the firstborn. Chilion: Heb. Kilyôn ("consumption"). The names of the two sons may have been chosen because they both manifested physical weaknesses after birth. The Targum says the brothers became officers in the Moab military. Gill notes that the Medieval Jewish Bible commentator Aben Ezra declared that Mahlon and Chilion to be the same as Joash and Saraph who had ruling authority in Moab (1Chr 4:22). Scripture offers no confirmation of these claims.

Ephrathites: pl. of Heb. Ephrathiy, adj. (from Ephrath or Ephrathah, "fruitful"), the name of an Israelite clan in the tribe of Judah. The adjective is also used of Elkanah, husband of Hannah (1Sam 1:1), Jesse, father of David (1Sam 17:12) and Nebat, a son of a servant of Solomon (1Kgs 11:26). of Bethlehem in Judah: See the previous verse. Edersheim suggests that the clan designation means that that the family had not been later immigrants, but original Jewish settlers (391). Rashi interprets the name "Ephrathites" to be men of worth and esteem based on the Targum comment, "Ephrathites" as noblemen of Bethlehem-Judah."

Gill suggests that no doubt the family were called so, because Ephrathah was one of the names of Bethlehem (Gen 35:19), so called from its fruitfulness. Henry Morris interprets the origin of the name to be from Ephrath the wife of Caleb (1Chr 2:19-20, 50; 4:4). He further suggests a spiritual analogy that one could note that the Messiah would become both "the bread of life" and "the true vine" (John 6:48; 15:1). As a place name Ephrath has a prophetic meaning since it is described as the dwelling place of ADONAI and His footstool (Ps 132:5-6). Being born in Bethlehem and of the line of Elimelech could make Yeshua also an Ephrathite.

Now they entered: Heb. bo, Qal cons. impf., to come, to go, or to enter. the territory: Heb. sadeh. See the previous verse. The noun is lit. "fields," but Bible versions translate it as singular, using "country" or "land." of Moab: Edersheim notes that Elimelech specifically chose not to enter Philistia or Egypt to find relief. Elimelech's decision could be viewed as seeking relief among one's kinsmen (cf. Lev 25:25). Jewish tradition does not look upon Elimelech's decision with favor. Ginzberg writes,

"Elimelech and his sons, who belonged to the aristocracy of the land, attempted neither to improve the sinful generation whose transgressions had called forth the famine, nor alleviated the distress that prevailed about them. They left Palestine [sic], and thus withdrew themselves from the needy who had counted upon their help." (Legends of the Jews, Vol. 4, Chap. 2)

Rashi concurs saying,

"He was very wealthy, and the leader of the generation. He left the Land of Israel for regions outside the Land because of stinginess, for he begrudged the poor who came to press him; therefore he was punished."

It should be noted that these speculations, like so many fictional novels and films about Bible stories, have no basis in Scripture and the decision of Elimelech to move to Moab is nowhere condemned. In terms of the promise-plan of God to bring forth the Messiah, it could be viewed as a providential necessity for Elimelech. Perhaps he even sensed God's call to make the move. Consider, too, that at the time God called Abram to leave Ur of the Chaldees, his destination of Canaan was also an idolatrous land, and yet Abram is not condemned by commentators for following God's direction.

and remained: Heb. hayah, Qal cons. impf., lit. "were." See verse 1 above. there: Heb. sham, adv., in that place; there, thither. The decision of Elimelech to move into Moab might have begun as a temporary expedient, but as time passed life became comfortable and the family was content with their circumstances. Regardless of what factors contributed to the decision to move and then stay, Scripture presents no evidence of wrongdoing by Elimelech. No one should be condemned without proof of guilt.

3 And Elimelech, the husband of Naomi, died; and she was left with her two sons.

And Elimelech, the husband of Naomi, died: Heb. muth, Qal cons. impf., to die physically or be dead. The time interval between moving to Moab and the death of the breadwinner is not stated, but perhaps soon because of the time reference in the next verse. His age is also not given. No blame is attached to Elimelech for his death, but Jewish commentary does attribute his death to divine judgment. Rashi notes that the verse stated the marriage relationship and comments that from this statement the Sages determined in reference to Elimelech's death that a man does not die except concerning his wife (Sanh. 22b).

In other words death came to Elimelech and not Naomi because as husband he ruled over her, and she was subordinate to him, therefore the divine standard of justice struck him and not her. However, it is never wise to assume where Scripture is silent. While life and death come from God (1Sam 2:6) divine justice is often specifically stated in bringing about death (e.g., Gen 38:7-10; Num 16:31-49; 1Sam 2:34; 3:12-14; 2Kgs 1:10-14, 16-17; 2:24; 8:10; 19:35; Isa 22:18; Jer 20:6; John 8:21; Acts 5:5-10; 12:22-23).

and she: Heb. hu, fem. pronoun, lit. "the same." was left: Heb. sha'ar, Nifal cons. impf., to remain, be left over, survive. with her two sons: For time Naomi had the companionship, comfort and support of her sons.

4 And they took for themselves wives of the Moabites; the name of the one was Orpah and the name of the other Ruth. And they lived there about ten years.

And they took: Heb. nasa, 3p-pl., to lift up, to carry or to take. The essential meaning of the verb is to bear a burden or responsibility and here with the connotation of finalizing marriage with sexual consummation (cf. Jdg 21:23). for themselves: Heb. l'hem, prep., 3p-pl, with regard to. The preposition refers to the two sons in the previous verse. wives: pl. of Heb. ishshah. See verse 1 above. In biblical accounts a wife never takes a husband, but a husband takes a wife (e.g., Gen 4:19; 6:2; 11:29; 1Sam 25:39; Hos 1:2). Also, they were not concubines, but wives with rights.

of the Moabites: pl. of Heb. Moabi, adj., a descendant or inhabitant of Moab. The sons probably followed the custom of the land for marriage. All the specific arrangements were usually handled by the parents of the bride and groom (e.g., Gen 21:21; 24:2-5; 27:46−28:1; 34:3-6; 38:6). A marriage would not take place without the consent of the bride (Gen 24:58). There was no wedding ceremony presided over by a religious official. The father of the bride would simply place his daughter's hand in the hand of the groom and declare she was his to take (cf. Tobit 7:13). Marriage was then finalized by the groom taking the bride into a room or his house for consummation.

Jewish analysis of these marriages is negative. The Targum says, "They transgressed the decree of the Word of the Lord" in marrying the Moabite women. Actually God only prohibited marriage to women of the seven pagan nations Israel was supposed to destroy, namely the Hittites, the Girgashites, the Amorites, the Canaanites, the Perizzites, the Hivites and the Jebusites (Deut 7:1-3; Josh 23:6-13). In contrast God permitted Israelite men to marry virgins of other enemies after having conquered them (Num 31:18; Deut 21:10-14).

Orpah: Heb. Orpah, the feminine of oreph, back of the neck, fig. of stubbornness (BDB 791). Her name appears only twice in the book (see verse 14). In historical Jewish interpretation Orpah has been strongly criticized. See the article The Defamation of Orpah. and Ruth: Heb. Rut ("friendship") (BDB 946). Her name appears twelve times in the Tanakh, all in this book. Nothing is revealed about the ages or background of these two women, although the Targum makes Ruth the daughter of Eglon, King of Moab (Jdg 3:12-17). According to later Jewish interpretation Orpah and Ruth were sisters (Ruth Rabbah 2:9). If true, Eglon was most likely "father" in terms of ancestor (cf. Gen 15:15; 46:34; 1Kgs 15:11).

Ruth married the firstborn Mahlon and Orpah married Chilion (Ruth 4:10). Considering the later declaration of Naomi and the commitment of Ruth (verses 15-17 below) these two women did not change their religious beliefs or practices after marrying the Israelites. The sons probably did not consider the real danger of the false religion of their wives (cf. Gen 35:1-4; 1Sam 15:23; 19:13; 1Kgs 11:3-8). The Targum and later Jewish literature fault the sons for their marriages, but don't suggest the men surrendered to idolatry. Indeed the Midrash says the husbands did not "convert or immerse" their wives (Ruth Rabbah 2:9).

And they lived: Heb. yashab, to sit, dwell, inhabit or remain. The implication is that Elimelech bought a house and moved in as a resident. there about ten: Heb. eser, the number ten, used here in reference to enumerating time. The noun has a kaf prefix as a preposition denoting "according to," which Bible versions render as "about." years: pl. of Heb. shanah, a period of twelve months or one year. Hebrew time references are based on the lunar calendar. The time period probably alludes to the entire period of residence from when the family first moved to Moab. In any event no mention is made of Orpah and Ruth bearing children, and so apparently were barren.

5 And the two also died, Mahlon and Chilion, and the woman was left without her two sons and her husband.

And the two: Heb. shenayim, two or the double of something. also: Heb. gam, adv., also, even, indeed, moreover. died: Heb. muth, Qal cons. impf., 3p-pl., to die or be dead. Mahlon and Chilion: See verse 2 above. The Targum interprets the tragedy as divinely initiated because of transgressing God's supposed marriage prohibition. The conjunction "also" refers back to the death of Elimelech, but Rashi interprets the conjunction to mean "First their possessions were smitten, and their camels and their cattle died, and afterwards they too died." The deaths of the brothers in the prime of life is highly unusual, but no blame is attached to them. The two Moabite women were now widows alongside of Naomi.

and the woman: Heb. ishshah; Naomi. was left: Heb. sha'ari, to remain, be left over, survive. Her widowhood was now made worse. without her two sons: pl. of Heb. yeled, boy, son, youth, young man. and her husband: Naomi's grief was greatly compounded by losing both her husband and two sons. The loss of husband and sons meant the loss of financial support, so she was without a social safety net.

Plan for Return to Judah, 1:6-13

6 Then she arose, she and her daughters-in-law, and she returned from the territory of Moab, for she had heard in a field of Moab that ADONAI had visited His people to give to them bread.

Then she arose: Heb qum, Qal cons. impf., to arise or stand. The verb could imply arising from sleep as well as putting her decision into effect. There is no sense of how much time passed since the death of her sons. she: Heb. hi, fem. pronoun, lit. "the same. and her daughters-in-law: pl. of Heb. kallah, daughter-in-law in reference to husband's father. In later books of the Tanakh the term came to mean simply "bride." Noteworthy is that death did not end the "in-law" relationship, as a divorce would have. The mention of Naomi and daughters-in-law together perhaps implies the three women were living together after the deaths of Mahlon and Chilion.

and she returned: Heb. shuv, Qal cons. imp., 3p-sing., bring back to mind, to return, turn back, turn around, first in Genesis 8:12, here with a geographical emphasis. from the territory: pl. of Heb. sadeh. See verse 1 above. of Moab: Heb. Moab. See verse 1 above. Naomi made a decision to return home and the daughters-in-law automatically prepared to go with her. for she had heard: Heb. shama, Qal perf., to hear or listen, often with the implication of attention and obedience. What Naomi learned motivated the decision to return to Israel.

in a field: Heb. sadeh. Note the change from plural to singular. of Moab: Perhaps Naomi had gone for a walk in the countryside to think seriously about her options and make up her mind about what to do. Naomi's decision to return appears motivated by news from Israel. The source of the information is not provided. The Targum states that an angel visited Naomi, which is possible given the content of the message.

that ADONAI: Heb. YHVH (Yod-Hey-Vav-Hey), the sacred name of the God of Israel. YHVH dominates in the Tanakh, first occurring in Genesis 2:4. While not reflected in Bible translations YHVH is not a title or a word for a deity, but the personal name of the God of Israel (Ex 3:15; 2Chr 14:11; Isa 42:8). Most Christian versions render YHVH with "the LORD," but a few versions have opted for rendering YHVH with "Yahweh" (LEB, LSB, NOG, WEB). The Genesis narrative identifies YHVH on the lips of Chavah ("Eve," Gen 4:1), then Seth and his descendants when "men began to call upon the name of YHVH" (Gen 4:26), Lamech, father of Noah on the occasion of his birth (Gen 5:29) and then by Noah himself when he blessed the line of Shem (Gen 9:26).

Abraham addressed the One who called him out of Ur as YHVH Elohim (Gen 15:2) and in that conversation God offered his first self-revelation as YHVH (Gen 15:7). The prevalence of the sacred name in Genesis asserts that the Creator-God is the God of Israel; and that the true people of God had always worshipped the Holy One of Israel. The revelation to Moses emphasized that YHVH hears the groaning of His people and remembers his covenant (Ex 6:5). The significance of the revelation of he sacred name is that YHVH is a deliverer and redeemer. See my article The Blessed Name for more discussion on this subject.

had visited: Heb. paqad, Qal perf., to visit, attend to, care for. His people: Heb. am, people, nation or kinfolk. The noun could be shorthand for the term am-ha'arets, "people of the land," i.e., the people of Israel. In Scripture the term is often viewed in contrast with the ruling class. The narrative employs an idiomatic expression that depicts the practical interest and care of the God of Israel for His people (cf. Gen 21:1; 50:24-25; Ex 3:16; 4:31; Luke 1:68). to give: Heb. nathan, Qal inf., to give, often with the connotation of generosity. to them: Heb. hem, pronoun, 3p-pl. bread: Heb. lechem, a baked product made from cereal grain, bread, but also used as a general term for food or meal. The clause depicts the ending of the famine.

7 And she departed from the place where she was there, and her two daughters-in-law with her; and they went on the way to return to the land of Judah.

And she departed: Heb. yatsa, Qal cons. impf., to go out, to come out, to bring forth, to depart. Rashi notes the redundancy of the verb "returned" in the previous verse and the verb "departed" here and comments, "But Scripture wishes to tell us that the departure of a righteous person from a place is conspicuous, and makes an impression. Its splendor has turned away; its majesty has turned away; the praise of a city has turned away, and likewise (Gen. 28:10): "And Jacob went forth from Beersheba."

from the place: Heb. maqom, place, location or site. where: Heb. aser, relative pronoun, who, which, what, where, that. she was: Heb. hayah, Qal perf. See verse 1 above. The author does not reveal the location within Moab where Naomi and her family lived, assuming he knew. there: Heb. sham, adv. See verse 4 above. The adverb refers to the undefined location in Moab. and her two daughters-in-law: See the previous verse. with her: Heb. im, prep., together, with, among. Perhaps since the three women had been cohabiting and functioning together, Orpah and Ruth just automatically joined in packing and leaving with Naomi.

and they went: Heb. halak, Qal cons. impf., 3p-pl., to go, walk, come, proceed, or move. The foundational sense of the verb is physical motion. on the way: Heb. derek, typically has the sense of a route for traveling; way, road, path, or journey. Use of the term implies a known route to journey between Israel and Moab. to return: Heb. shuv, Qal inf. See the previous verse. to the land of Judah: See verse 1 above. The geographical focus is on the territory allocated to the tribe of Judah, the location of the author. The means of return required walking, which meant having the physical stamina for traversing the mountainous terrain. The distance to Bethlehem was as much as fifty miles and would take at least a week to ten days.

8 And Naomi said to her two daughters-in-law, "Go, return each woman to the house of her mother. May ADONAI deal with you in faithfulness as you have done with the dead and with me.

And Naomi said: Heb. amar, Qal cons. impf., used for direct speech; to say, shew, declare, or utter. to her two daughters-in-law: See verse 6 above. After departing Naomi had second thoughts about being accompanied by her daughters-in law. Go: Heb. halak, Qal imp. See the previous verse. The imperative form of the verb denotes an entreaty rather than a command. return: Heb. shuv, Qal imp. See verse 6 above.

each woman in the house: Heb. bayit, a structure for habitation; dwelling or house. of her mother: Heb. immah, a biological mother; "her mother." After ten years Naomi may not have been sure of Israelite attitudes toward Moabites. The implication is that the parents of the daughters-in-law were still living (cf. Ruth 2:11). She then expressed two wish prayers for Orpah and Ruth.

May ADONAI: Heb. YHVH, the God of Israel. See the verse 6 above. It is significant that Naomi uses the covenant name rather than one of the generic titles for God. deal: Heb. asah, Qal impf., to do, to make, to accomplish, to perform, or to act. with you: pl. of Heb. im, prep., among, with, together with. in faithfulness: Heb. khesed, mercy, steadfast love, faithfulness, goodness, lovingkindness, covenant loyalty. Khesed is a relational word, depicting favorable regard and treatment of one to another. While the term is used of humans acting with kindness, especially to the needy, the word is primarily an attribute and action of God toward His covenant people. Naomi wishes that God would extend the covenant care He has for Israel to Orpah and Ruth.

as you have done: Heb. asah, Qal perf., 2p-pl. with the dead: Heb. muth, Qal participle, masc. pl., "the dead ones." Naomi compliments Ruth and Orpah for being faithful to their marriage covenants with Mahlon and Chilion. They had been good wives to her sons. and with me: Naomi also appreciated the kindness and respectful treatment she received from Ruth and Orpah.

9 May ADONAI give to you and may you find rest, a wife in the house of her husband." Then she kissed them, and they lifted up their voices and wept.

May ADONAI: Heb. YHVH, the God of Israel. See verse 6 above. give: Heb. nathan, Qal impf. See verse 6 above. to you: Heb. l'kem, prep., in regard to, with a plural suffix. and may you find: Heb. matsa, Qal imp., to find, to discover, to encounter, to obtain. rest: Heb. menuchah, rest, resting place, repose, tranquility. a wife: Heb. ishshah, wife or woman. Most versions render the noun as "each of you." The wish of Naomi is that the two women will again be a wife. in the house: See the previous verse. of her husband: See verse 5 above. The wish is for a new husband.

In Scripture remarriage of widows is both acceptable and desirable, if possible (cf. 1Sam 27:3; 1Cor 7:8-9, 39; 1Tim 5:14). Naomi might have considered whether there was be a Moabite relative who could perform the duty of Levirate marriage, which applied when the widow was childless (Deut 25:5). Levirate marriage was practiced among many ancient peoples (see the Jewish Encyclopedia article.) Of course, the Torah command applied to the covenant community. The rule did not apply to Gentiles, unless the Gentile joined the covenant people. See my article Levirate Marriage. Naomi expressed concern for their temporal security, but not their spiritual relationship with God.

Then she kissed: Heb. nashaq, Qal cons. impf., to kiss, to touch gently. them: Naomi clearly had affection for Orpah and Ruth. and they lifted up: Heb. nasa, Qal cons. impf., 3p-pl., to bear or lift up. The verb alludes to loud volume. their voices: pl. of Heb. qol, voice or sound. and wept: Heb. bakah, Qal cons. impf., 3p-pl., to weep or express lamentation in genuine grief. The daughters-in-law likewise had great affection for Naomi and the thought of being separated from her compounded the grief they were feeling for their husbands.

10 And they said to her, "Surely we will return with you to your people."

And they said: : Heb. amar, Qal cons. impf. See verse 8 above. to her: Orpah and Ruth were unified in their response to Naomi's proposal. Surely: Heb. ki, conj., which may express (1) a firm commitment; indeed, surely; (2) time in pointing to the past, when; or (3) causation, for, because. The first usage is intended here. we will return: Heb. shuv, Qal impf., 1p-pl. See verse 6 above. The proposal is not merely to accompany Naomi to the border of Israel, but to join her in complete relocation.

with you to your people: See verse 6 above. Exell notes that the two women specify, "we will return," instead of "we will go with you in your return." For the moment Orpah and Ruth identify themselves with their mother-in-law, as if they had come with her from Judah. There is no reason to think the young women did not "count the cost" of joining a foreign people.

11 But Naomi said, "Return, my daughters. Why go with me? Have I yet sons in my womb, that they may become your husbands?

Reference: Genesis 38:11; Deuteronomy 25:5.

But Naomi said: Heb. amar, Qal cons. impf. See verse 8 above. Naomi offers a lengthy response through verse 13 to the expressed wish of Orpah and Ruth. Return: Heb. shuv, Qal imp. See verse 6 above. my daughters: pl. of Heb. bath, a female offspring, daughter, or a female descendant. Naomi regards Orpah and Ruth with such affection as if they were her own daughters. Naomi explicably attempts to discourage them from making the journey to Israel. Why: Heb. mah, interrogative pronoun, what, why, how. go: Heb. halak, Qal impf. See verse 7 above. with me: Naomi frames her response to the desire of Orpah and Ruth to come with her as whether she can provide them with husbands through Levirate marriage.

Apparently Naomi is oblivious to the religious and spiritual benefit of the Moabite women immigrating to Israel. She then presents three arguments to dissuade them from coming with her. Have I yet: Heb. od, adv., again, still, yet, more. sons: pl. of Heb. ben. See verse 1 above. in my womb: Heb. me'eh, belly, inward parts, bowels, or womb. She might have added "like Rebekah and Tamar who gave birth to twins" (Gen 25:24; 38:27). that they may become: Heb. hayah, Qal conj. perf. See verse 1 above. your husbands: Naomi's first argument is that not only had she no other sons in Israel to give to them but presently she was not with child; so there could be no expectation.

12 Return, my daughters! Go, for I am too old to have a husband. If I said I have hope and I should have a husband tonight and also bear sons,

Return: Heb. shuv, Qal imp. See verse 6 above. my daughters: Again Naomi employs the affectionate address, but repeats her entreaty. go: Heb. halak, Qal imp. See verse 7 above. Naomi strengthens her appeal with a second more emphatic entreaty and then makes her second argument. for I am too old: Heb. zaqen, Qal perf., to be old, to grow old, to become aged. The LXX translates the Hebrew verb with gēraskō, to become or grow old. Thayer says the Greek verb carries with it the suggestion of waning strength. to have a husband: Her second argument is that her age is against her for a remarriage and intimate relations.

A man might marry her for companionship in old age, but not for producing a family. It's not clear how long Elimelech has been dead, but unlike the Samaritan woman (John 4:18) Naomi viewed herself as ineligible for remarriage. Becoming pregnant without the benefit of marriage would be unthinkable. Naomi then presents a third argument that continues into the next verse. She presents a rhetorical question that introduces in her mind an absurd scenario. If I should say: Heb. amar, Qal perf. for me there is hope: Heb. tiqvah, hope, expectation.

and I should have: Heb. hayah, Qal perf. a husband tonight: Heb. layil, a twist (away of the light), i.e. night as opposed to day, tonight. Use of the term suggests the conversation was being held when the day was close to coming to an end. Naomi presents an impossible situation as hypothetical, but in no circumstances would she marry a Moabite. and also should bear: Heb. yalad, Qal perf., to bear, bring forth, beget. sons: She reiterates the impossible situation, because she views herself as too old to get pregnant.

13 would you therefore wait until they were grown? Would you deny yourselves from being a wife to a husband? No, my daughters; for it is far more bitter for me than for you, for the hand of ADONAI has gone forth against me."

Reference: Job 12:9; 19:21.

would you therefore wait: Heb. sabar, Piel impf., 2p-pl., to hope, to wait, to expect. until they were grown: Heb. gadal, Qal impf., 3p-pl., to grow up, to be great. Naomi's question is reminiscent of the story of Judah and Tamar in which after Tamar lost two husbands of his sons, Judah proposed that Tamar wait until his third son, Shelah, grew up and could marry her (Gen 38:11). Would you deny yourselves: Heb. agan, Niphal impf., 2p-pl., to debar or deny. from being a wife: Heb. hayah, Qal inf. See verse 1 above. to a husband: The question assumes that the opportunity of finding an adult male to be her husband was far more likely that waiting on a hypothetical son of Naomi to grow up.

Therefore Naomi begs them to return to their own country where they might be comfortably settled among their own kindred. No: Heb. al, adv. of negation, no, nor, nothing. my daughters: For the third time Naomi uses the affectionate address and provides the answer to her own question. for it is far more: Heb. meod, adj., very, exceedingly, much, greatly. bitter for me: Heb. marar, Qal perf., to be or make bitter; to sorely grieve. for me than for you: Naomi considers her grief and loss to be worse because she had lost a husband and two sons, whereas Orpah and Ruth had only lost a husband. for the hand: Heb. yad, the anatomical limb of the hand, but used here in a figurative sense.

of ADONAI: Heb. YHVH. See verse 6 above. Naomi again speaks the covenant name of the God of Israel and employs a common anthropomorphism, attributing human characteristics to God. has gone forth: Heb. yatsa, Qal perf. See verse 7 above. The verb is used as a word picture of the divine hand reaching out of Heaven to earth. against me: Often the idiom "hand of ADONAI" is used when God acts in judgment or to oppose actions of a people (cf. Ex 9:3; Deut 2:15; Josh 4:24; Jdg 2:15; 1Sam 5:6, 9; 7:13; 12:15; Ps 75:8; Isa 19:16; 25:10).

In my view Naomi was very shortsighted. She doesn't ask Orpah and Ruth about their desires or to explain why they want to go with her. She doesn't have a conversation about the implications of their moving to Israel. She was so mired in her own misery that she could not recognize the opportunity to rescue two women from idolatry and the dangers of the Chemosh cult.

Loyalty of Ruth, 1:14-18

14 And they lifted up their voices and wept again; and Orpah kissed her mother-in-law, but Ruth clung to her.

And they lifted up: Heb. nasa, Qal cons. impf., 3p-pl. See verse 4 above. their voices: Heb. qol. See verse 9 above. The noun is actually singular. The clause probably depicts inarticulate sound accompanying their lamentation. and wept: Heb. bakah, Qal cons. impf., 3p-pl. See verse 9 above. again: Heb. od, adv. See verse 11 above. and Orpah kissed: Heb. nashaq, Qal cons. impf. See verse 9 above. her mother-in-law: Heb. chamoth, husband's mother; a mother-in-law. This time the kiss signaled a farewell. but Ruth clung: Heb. dabaq, Qal cons. impf., to cling, cleave, adhere, stick, join. to her: Ruth embraced Naomi and refused to say goodbye.

15 And she said, "Behold, your sister-in-law has gone back to her people and her gods; return after your sister-in-law."

And she said: Perhaps with discomfort at being held Naomi speaks tenderly to Ruth. Behold: Heb. hinneh, demonstrative interjection that arouses the attention of hearers or readers, which often serves to enliven divine monologues and narratives, particularly to invite closer consideration of something; (you) see, look, behold. your sister-in-law: Heb. yebemeth, brother's wife, sister-in-law. has gone back: Heb. shuv, Qal perf. See verse 6 above. to her people: Heb. am. and her gods: Heb. Elohim, the generic name in the Tanakh for the Creator and ruler of the universe (Gen 1:1). Elohim is also used in a large number of verses for a heathen deity (e.g. Ex 12:12; 2Kgs 17:31; 2Chr 32:15; Dan 11:37; Hab 1:11).

Farrar comments that Naomi echoes the ancient belief that each land and people had its own deity inseparably connected with it; outside lay the territory of another god. For the Israelites ADONAI was the only God (cf. Deut 4:35, 39). Gill notes that Aben Ezra concluded from the grammar here, that Orpah had been a proselyte to the true religion, and had renounced the gods of her nation, and retained the same profession while her husband lived, but with his death she apostatized, since she is said to go back to her gods.

return: Heb. shuv, Qal. imp. after: Heb. achar, prep., after, behind, following, afterward. your sister-in-law: In spite of Ruth's demonstrative affection Naomi again entreats her follow the example of Orpah and return to her people. A Christian analysis of Orpah's decision to return to her family is decidedly negative:

"Orpah's departure crystallizes the dramatic contrast between two responses to covenant opportunity [sic]: returning to the familiar gods of Moab or embracing the God of Israel. Her farewell kiss is respectful and affectionate, indicating no hostility toward Naomi, but it underscores a decision grounded in natural ties rather than covenant faith" (BHTL).

In rebuttal to this analysis I ask "what covenant opportunity?" Naomi made no such offer, but in fact endeavored in the strongest terms possible to discourage the Moabite women from relocating to Israel and to stay with their people and their false gods. Naomi's concern seems focused exclusively on marital security, without any consideration for religious salvation. In Israel's history recorded in the Torah and early prophets any Gentile who "converted" and joined the covenant community did so on their own initiative without any encouragement or persuasion of an Israelite (cf. Ex 12:38; Josh 6:25; 2Sam 23:37-39; 1Chr 12:3-4; Neh 3:7; cf. Acts 17:24-28).

Conversely, an alien who voluntarily sojourned with Israel was entitled to the same rights as Israelites and expected to obey Torah commandments (cf. Ex 12:48-49; Lev 16:29; 17:8, 10-13; Num 9:14; 15:14-16; 19:10; Deut 1:16; 10:18-19; 14:21; 24:14, 17, 19-21; Josh 20:9). This verse contains a hint of tragic irony. Orpah chose to return to her gods because Naomi discouraged her from coming to Israel and receiving the light of the one true God. If this story was put into a Christian context Naomi would be condemned for not sharing the gospel.

This particular scene illustrates the difference in initiative between Orpah and Ruth. Both Moabite women received absolutely no encouragement from Naomi, so the two women had to make a decision based on their own desire. The desire of Orpah to cleave to Naomi and emigrate to Israel was clearly not as strong as Ruth. The fact that Ruth makes the commitment in the next two verses is all the more significant. The prophetic call to proclaim salvation to the nations would wait until Ruth's great grandson David (1Chr 16:7-36; Ps 96:1-3).

A couple more centuries would pass until Isaiah renewed the call for Israel to be a light to the nations (Isa 42:6; 49:6; 60:3). God's will would not be fully realized until the apostolic commission (Matt 28:19-20; Acts 1:8; 17:30-31).

16 And Ruth said, "Do not urge me to leave you or to turn back from following you; for where you go, I will go, and where you lodge, I will lodge. Your people are my people, and your God, my God."

Ruth then expresses a powerful six-part commitment. And Ruth said: Heb. amar, Qal cons. impf. Here the verb probably denotes an assertive declaration. Ruth rejects Naomi's vision of her future. The Targum presents Ruth's six affirmations as defensive comments to Naomi being assertive with expectations of a proselyte, which really reflects the tenets of Rabbinic Judaism. Rashi confirms the Targum interpretation that a prospective proselyte who comes to convert is told some of the punishments for violating the commandments, so that if he decides to renege, he can renege. Out of Ruth's words the Sages speculated what Naomi supposedly said to her.

The Medieval Jewish interpretation of Ruth's commitment really reflects the attitude of Rabbinic Judaism toward Gentiles that want to convert. Jewish leaders mimic the attitude of Naomi and do not provide any encouragement to convert. Samuel's narrative contains no confirmation of the Targum's speculation. However, Ruth is not a true Gentile in the typical usage of that term in Scripture. Being descended from Lot she is of Semitic stock, possessing a shared heritage with Naomi. Ruth is not debating with Naomi. Instead Ruth now dictates her future in no uncertain terms.

Do not: Heb. al, negative adv. urge me: Heb. paga, Qal impf., to meet, encounter, entreat or strike. to leave you: Heb. azab, Qal inf., to leave, forsake, abandon. or to turn back: Heb. shuv, Qal inf. See verse 6 above. from following you: Heb. achar, prep. See the previous verse. The subtle meaning is "stop trying to discourage me." Ruth insists that Naomi cease trying to persuade or pressure her and then makes six solemn and unequivocal promises. for: Heb. ki, conj. See verse 10 above. where: Heb. aser, relative pronoun. See verse 7 above. you go: Heb. halak, Qal impf. See verse 7 above. I will go: Heb. halak, Qal impf. Ruth implies, "If you walk away from me I'll be right behind you."

and where you lodge: Heb. lun, Qal impf., to lodge, to remain, to dwell, to abide. I will lodge: Heb. lun, Qal impf. "Where you sleep you'll find me next to you." Your people: Heb. am, 2p-suffix. Ruth affirms that each of them is defined by an ethnic heritage that separates people groups. are my people: Heb. am, 1p-suffix. Most versions insert a future tense verb ("will/shall be"), but there is no verb in the phrase and thus the declaration is emphatic of a present reality. and your God: Heb. Elohim, 2p-suffix. See the previous verse. She could have added, "and the God of my ancestor Lot." my God: Heb. Elohim, 1p-suffix. Ruth affirms that in the moment the God of Israel was now her God.

17 Where you die, I will die, and there I will be buried. Thus may ADONAI do to me, and ever so more, for only death will cause separation between me and you."

Where you die: Heb. muth, Qal impf., 2p-suffix. See verse 3 above. I will die: Heb. muth, Qal impf., 1p-suffix. and there: Heb. sham, adv. See verse 4 above. The clause implies "wherever we are living in Israel." I will be buried: Heb. qabar, Niphal impf., 1p-suffix, to bury or inter. She anticipates traditional Hebrew burial, which takes place very soon after death without embalming. Thus: Heb. koh, adv., thus, so, here, in this manner. may ADONAI: Heb. YHVH. See verse 6 above. It is extraordinary for Ruth, the Moabite, to invoke the covenant name of God, which reflects her transfer of religious loyalty.

do: Heb. asah, Qal impf. See verse 8 above. to me: The declaration is a self-imposed curse for failure to act. The idiomatic expression is used by other notable Bible characters (1Sam 3:17; 14:44; 2Sam 3:35; 19:13; 1Kgs 2:23; 19:2; 20:10; 2Kgs 6:31). and ever so: Heb. koh. more: Heb. yasaph, Hiphil impf., to add to something; again, add, more. Ruth gives God permission to increase punishment as he sees fit. for: Heb. ki, conj. See verse 10 above. Here the conjunction expresses causality. Many versions translate the conjunction as "if," but the LXX translation with hoti, confirms the meaning. only death: Heb. maveth, the state of being dead regardless of means.

will cause separation: Heb. parad, Hiphil impf., to separate, divide, disperse. The Hiphil verb form stresses causation. between me: Heb. bayin, prep., 1p-suffix, between, interval, space. and you: Heb. bayin, prep., 2p-suffix.

18 And Naomi saw that Ruth was determined to go with her, and she stopped speaking to her.

And Naomi saw: Heb. ra'ah, Qal cons. impf., 3p-sing., lit. "she saw." that: Heb. ki, conj. See verse 10 above. Ruth was determined: Heb. amets, Hithpael prtcpl., to be strong, to be courageous, to be firm, to strengthen. Hebrew participles are "verbal adjectives," meaning that they function like adjectives though they are constructed from verbs. The participle not only describes action, but the character of the person. to go: Heb. halak, Qal inf. See verse 1 above. with her: Heb. eth, prep. denoting proximity and companionship; among, beside, with.

and she stopped: Heb. chadal, Qal cons. impf., to cease, desist, leave off, refrain, forsake. speaking: Heb. dabar, Piel inf., to speak, declare, converse, command. to her: Heb. el, prep., towards, unto. Naomi realized that Ruth's commitment was sincere and firm and she ceased her efforts to dissuade Ruth from going with her. The verbal clause may imply that there was little conversation on the long trip to Bethlehem.

Arrival in Bethlehem, 1:19-22

19 And the two of them journeyed until they came to Bethlehem. And it came to pass as they entered Bethlehem, all the city was stirred because of them, and the women said, "Is this Naomi?"

And the two of them: Heb. shenayim. See verse 2 above. journeyed: Heb. halak, Qal cons. impf., 3p-pl. See verse 7 above. The narrative passes over the arduous nature of walking in mountainous terrain and making camp at night through at least a week. In any event through God's sovereign care the women apparently faced no dangers or hindrances. until: Heb. ad, temporal prep. that stresses reaching the terminus; until, as far as, up to. There was no turning back. The life in Moab was over. they came: Heb. bo, Qal inf., 3p-pl. See verse 2 above. to Bethlehem: Heb. Beit-Lechem. See verse 1 above.

And it came to pass: Heb. hayah, Qal cons. impf. See verse 1 above. as they entered: Heb. bo, Qal inf., 3p-pl. Bethlehem: Heb. Beit-Lechem. all: Heb. kol, all, every, whole, entire, total. The term is comprehensive in scope, although not necessarily a statistical computation. the city: Heb. iyr, a population center whose size or number of inhabitants could range broadly, a city or town. was stirred: Heb. hum, Niphal cons. impf., to make a noise, to murmur, to roar, to be in commotion. The social network sprung into action with the news.

because of them: Heb. ahl, prep. with pl. fem. suffix; concerning, because of. It's very likely that people recognized that Ruth was not an Israelite. To see an old Israelite woman walking with a young Moabite woman was astonishing. Moreover, Naomi was without her husband and sons. and the women said: Heb. amar, Qal cons. impf. with pl. fem. suffix. See verse 8 above. Is this: Heb. zoth, demonstrative pronoun; this, that. Naomi: Heb. Naomi. See verse 1 above. The question was asked not because women who had known Naomi previously did not recognize her.

Aben Ezra observes that the question shows the status Elimelech and Naomi who formerly were among the notable people of rank in Israel. Gill concurs with this interpretation saying otherwise there would not have been such a concourse of people upon her coming, and such inquiries made and questions put, had she been formerly a poor woman. Ellicott notes that after ten years grief and toil had doubtless made her look aged and worn.

20 She said to them, "Do not call me Naomi; call me Mara, for Shaddai has dealt bitterly with me, exceedingly.

She said to them: Heb. amar, Qal cons. perf. See verse 8 above. Naomi responded to the women, who had perhaps surrounded her full of curiosity. Do not call me: Heb. qara, Qal impf., 2p-pl., to call, proclaim or read, here meaning to address by name. Naomi: Heb. Naomi. call me: Heb. qara, Qal imp. Mara: Heb. Mara, a proper name meaning "bitter." The term is also related to the adjective marah, used to describe the bitterness of water at Marah in the wilderness (Ex 15:23). Aben Ezra comments that 'Naomi' means something delightful, and 'Mara' is the opposite of delight. Naomi in no way implies that she deserved to suffer because of her husband's decision to move to Moab.

for Shaddai: Heb. Shadday, the Almighty. ADONAI revealed this name to Abraham (Gen 17:1). The name illustrates the power, sufficiency, and sovereignty of God. Yet Naomi has a very different experience with Shaddai. has dealt bitterly with me: Heb. marar, Hiphil perf., to be bitter or to make bitter. The verb is used in Exodus 1:14 to describe the bitterness of life under Egyptian oppression. exceedingly: Heb. meod, adj. See verse 13 above. Naomi's analysis of her life is strikingly similar to the book of Job. (See my commentary on the book of Job.)

In the early book of Job set in patriarchal times the name of Shaddai occurs 31 times out of the 48 times in the Tanakh. Shaddai is identified as the one ultimately responsible for Job's suffering (Job 6:4), although his friends regard the suffering as punishment of Shaddai (Job 5:16; 8:3-5; 22:17-26). In spite of the loyalty and companionship of Ruth, Naomi has arrived in Bethlehem dejected and hopeless.

21 I went out full, but ADONAI has brought me back empty. Why do you call me Naomi? Furthermore, ADONAI has witnessed against me and Shaddai has afflicted me."

I went out: Heb. halak, Qal perf. See verse 1 above. full: Heb. malē, adj., complete, filled. Keil explains that "full," means rich, but not in money and property, but in the possession of a husband and two sons; a rich mother, as affirmed in the Targum. but ADONAI: Heb. YHVH. See verse 6 above. For the sixth time in this chapter the sacred covenant name of God is spoken aloud. has brought me back: Heb. shuv, Hiphil perf. See verse 6 above. She indirectly affirms God's sovereign care to enable her to make the difficult trip from Moab to Bethlehem. empty: Heb. reqam, adv., empty-handed, in vain, without cause. She is now deprived of all that makes a mother's heart rich, bereft of both husband and sons.

Why: Heb. mah, interrogative pronoun, what, why, how. do you call: Heb. qara, Qal impf. with 2p-pl. suffix. me Naomi: The question is purely rhetorical, reflecting her bitterness and misery. Furthermore, ADONAI: Heb. YHVH, with a vav prefix, which adds another layer of action from the God of Israel. has witnessed against me: Heb. anah, Qal perf., to answer, respond, testify. and Shaddai: Heb. Shadday. See the previous verse. has afflicted me: Heb. ra'a, Hiphil perf., to be evil, to do wickedly, to harm, to break, to be displeasing. The verb spans a broad spectrum of "evil" in the Tanakh, e.g., moral wrongdoing (sin against God), social wrongdoing (injury to neighbor), and material calamity (ruin, affliction, destruction).

Scripture differentiates moral evil (which God never commits) from judicial calamity (which God may send or permit). The Targum interprets her comment in the last verbal clause to mean "Why, then, should you call me Naomi, seeing that my guilt has been testified to before the Lord, and the Almighty has brought evil upon me?" On the contrary Naomi's comment reflects her own bitterness at the tragedy she has suffered. Her way of making sense of what happened is to theorize that God found her at fault in something, even though she doesn't know what it could be. Her analysis is not a confession of wrongdoing.

22 And Naomi returned, and Ruth the Moabitess, her daughter-in-law with her, who returned from the territory of Moab. And they came to Bethlehem at the beginning of barley harvest.

Reference: Leviticus 23:10-11.

And Naomi: Heb. Naomi. See verse 1 above. returned: Heb shuv, Qal cons. impf. See verse 6 above. Here the verb signifies going back to the point of origin. Samuel pauses to repeat the narrative of Naomi's return to Israel. and Ruth: Heb. Rut. See verse 4 above. Samuel stresses three points of identity, first name, which means "friendship," and second her ethnicity, a non-Israelite. the Moabitess: Heb. ha-Moabi, adj. with feminine suffix. See verse 4 above. her daughter-in-law: Heb. kallah. See verse 6 above. The third point of identity is the continued relationship of Naomi and Ruth. Not saying, 'widow of Mahlon,' seems significant.

with her: Heb. im, prep. who turned back: Heb. shuv, Qal perf. The verb might seem inappropriate since Ruth was not originally from Israel and bo ("came") would be expected as in verse 19. However, Ruth's voluntary consecration expressed in verse 16 is tantamount to repentance, having renounced idolatry. In effect Ruth turned back to ADONAI, the God of her ancestor Lot (cf. Gen 12:4; 19:14-15, 29; 2Pet 2:4-8).

from the territory: pl. of Heb. sadeh. See verse 1 above. of Moab: Heb. Moab. See verse 1 above. The concluding description emphasizes the significance of the event from the point of view of local residents. Naomi arrived without husband and sons, but was accompanied by a Moabitess! Such an event would be shocking, but typical of the extraordinary and even outrageous events that occurred in the time of the judges.

And they came: Heb. bo, Qal perf., 3p-pl. See verse 2 above. to Bethlehem: Heb. Beit-Lechem. See verse 1 above. at the beginning: Heb. techillah, beginning, start, first, chief. Here the noun refers to a commencement and denotes a precise time. of barley: Heb. seorah, a cereal plant belonging to the grass family, having awned flowers that grow in tightly bunched spikes, with three small additional spikes at each node. The feminine form of the noun signifies the plant. harvest: Heb. qatsiyr, reaping the plants to obtain the grain which is then used for making bread.

Although barley and wheat were both planted in the autumn, barley matured faster and would be harvested first in the early Spring, sometimes as early as March, but generally in April, or Abib (Deut 8:8). Barley was the most common cereal grain grown in ancient Israel and considered the bread of the poor, because it was cheaper to buy than wheat (cf. 2Kgs 7:1). The Targum says, "they came to Bethlehem at the beginning of the day of the Passover, and on that day the children of Israel began to reap the wave sheaf, which was of barley.'' See an image of a harvested field here.

During the time of the judges the sacred tabernacle was maintained at Shiloh in the hill country of Ephraim (Jdg 18:31; 1Sam 1:3). There is a mention of a feast observed annually at Shiloh, presumptively one of the pilgrim festivals (Jdg 21:19). Yet, the book of Ruth contains no specific mention of a pilgrim festival or any of God's appointed times (Lev 23:1-44). The interpretation of the Targum is entirely plausible because the "beginning of the barley harvest" occurred on the day of or the day after Passover. The priests would wave the first sheaves of barley before ADONAI in the temple on the day after Passover (Lev 23:9-14).

Returning to Bethlehem at Passover time is highly symbolic, since Passover represents deliverance from bondage. Ruth was delivered from the bondage of idolatry (cf. Rom 6:16-18; 8:15; 1Cor 10:14; 12:2; 2Cor 6:16; Gal 4:3; 1Th 1:9). See my article The Passover for a summary of the institution of Passover and its later observance among Jews.

Works Cited

BDB: The New Brown, Driver, Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon. London: Oxford University Press, 1907. Reprinted by Associated Publishers and Authors, Inc., 1981. Online at BibleHub.com.

BHTL: BibleHub Topical Lexicon, BibleHub.com. nd.

Clarke: Adam Clarke (1762-1832), Commentary on the Holy Bible: Luke (1826). Online.

DSB: Defenders Study Bible. World Publishing Co., 1995. [KJV with explanatory notes by Dr. Henry M. Morris, formerly President of Institute for Creation Research.]

Edersheim: Alfred Edersheim, Bible History Old Testament (1876-87). Book 3, Chap. 21. Hendrickson Publishers, 1995. Online.

Ellicott: Charles John Ellicott (1819–1905), Commentary for English Readers (1878). Online.

Exell: Joseph S. Exell, ed. (1849–1910), Ruth, The Pulpit Commentary, Vol. 16. Hendrickson Pub., 1985. Online.

Farrar: Frederic W. Farrar (1831–1903), Ruth, The Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges. Cambridge University Press, 1891. Online.

Gill: John Gill (1697-1771), Exposition of the Entire Bible. Online here.

Ginzberg: Louis Ginzberg, The Legends of the Jews, 1909. Online.

Keil: C.F. Keil, The Book of Ruth, Commentary on the Old Testament, Vol. 2 (1866-1891) by C.F. Keil and F. Delitzsch. Hendrickson, 2006. Online.

Rashi: Rabbi Shlomo Yitzhaqi (1040-1105), Commentary on the Tanakh. Online. (French rabbi, rabbinical judge and commentator)

Targum: Aramaic Targum on Ruth, (1−600 A.D.) trans. Samson H. Levy, 1934. Online.

Thayer: Joseph Henry Thayer (1828-1901), Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament (Harper Brothers, 1889). Hendrickson Publishers, 2003. Online.