Chapter 22 Blaine Robison, M.A.Published 31 January 2026 (in progress)
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Scripture Text: The Scripture text used in this commentary is prepared by Blaine Robison and based on the Nestle-Aland Greek New Testament. The essentially literal translation seeks to reflect the Jewish character of the author and writing. Scripture quotations may be taken from different Bible versions. Click here for Abbreviations of Bible Versions. Quotations marked with the initials "BR" indicate the translation of the commentary author. Sources: Bibliographic data for works cited may be found at the end of the chapter commentary. Works without page numbers are cited ad loc. Important early Jewish sources include the following: ● DSS: the Dead Sea Scrolls, a collection of Jewish manuscripts of Scripture and sectarian documents found in the Qumran caves. Most of the Qumran MSS belong to the last three centuries B.C. and the first century A.D. Online DSS Bible; Vermes. ● LXX: The abbreviation "LXX" ("70") stands for the Septuagint, the Jewish translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, in use among Jews by the mid-2nd century B.C. Online. The LXX also included the Apocrypha, Jewish works produced from 400 B.C. to A.D. 1, RSV Online. ● Targums: Aramaic translation of Hebrew Scripture with commentary: Targum Onkelos (A.D. 80-120), and Targum Jonathan (A.D. 150-250). Index of Targum texts. ● Josephus: The Works of Flavius Josephus (c. 75–99 A.D.), Jewish historian, trans. William Whiston (1737). Online. ● Philo: Works by Philo of Alexandria, the Jewish philosopher (20 B.C.─A.D. 50), consisting of 45 monographs. Online. ● Talmud: References to the Talmud are from the Soncino Babylonian Talmud (1948); found at Halakhah.com. The Talmud incorporates the Mishnah, Jewish laws (A.D. 180-220) and the Gemara, legal analysis (A.D. 220-500). Click here for Talmud Abbreviations. ● WLC-MT: The Masoretic Text (Westminster Leningrad Codex) is the authoritative Hebrew text of the Tanakh for Judaism. Developing a uniform Hebrew text began in early 2nd c. A.D., but completed by scholars known as the Masoretes between the 7th and 10th centuries A.D. The oldest extant manuscripts date from the 9th century. Online. Syntax: Unless otherwise noted the meaning of Greek words is from F.W. Danker, The Concise Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament (2009), and the meaning of Hebrew words is from The New Brown, Driver, Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon (1981), abbreviated as "BDB." See the Greek Guide for the meaning of grammar abbreviations. Special Terms: In order to emphasize the Hebrew and Jewish nature of the entire Bible I use the terms Yeshua (Jesus), Messiah (Christ), ADONAI (for the sacred name YHVH), Torah (Pentateuch, Law), Tanakh (Old Testament), and Besekh (New Testament). Dates are from Risto Santala, The Messiah in the New Testament in the Light of Rabbinical Writings (1992). Online. Please see the article Witnesses of the Good News for background information on Luke and his book.
Part Four: The Consummation of Messiah's Mission (19:28-24:53) Chapter Summary Chapter 22 begins with the reminder of the immanence of Passover and the plot against Yeshua's life. Judas, at the instigation of Satan, conspires with the religious leaders to betray him. Yeshua directs Peter and John to make preparations for the observance of Passover. That evening Yeshua and his disciples share the Passover feast during which he gives special significance to the bread and the cup and announces the inauguration of the New Covenant prophesied by Jeremiah. During the meal he announces that one of his disciples is a traitor, which leads to an argument between the disciples concerning who should be greatest. Yeshua rebukes his disciples and gives a prophetic message of his will for their lives and the future Kingdom of God. He then warns Peter against spiritual warfare, his failure and ultimate redemption. He also gives cryptic instruction to his disciples about making preparations for self-support. Some of the disciples decide they need personal weapons, which Yeshua rejects. With his disciples, except Judas, Yeshua walks to the Mount of Olives where he engages in a period of intercessory prayer, so intense that he sheds blood. Judas later leads the chief priests and temple police officers to the place of prayer to complete his betrayal. Peter quickly reacts by cutting off the ear of the high priest's servant, which Yeshua heals. Having surrendered to the arresting party Yeshua is taken to the house of the high priest. Peter follows and after arriving at the house denies his Master. Yeshua looks upon him, and being stung with remorse, Peter weeps bitterly. Yeshua is then mocked and insulted by the temple officers. The next morning he is questioned before the Temple ruling council where he acknowledges himself to be the Son of Man prophesied by Daniel and the Son of God. For this declaration the council condemns him as deserving to die. Chapter Outline Passover Plot, 22:1-6 Preparation for Passover Observance, 22:7-13 New Covenant Inauguration, 22:14-20 Betrayal Announcement and Argument, 22:21-27 Teaching and Exhortation, 22:28-38 Intercession in the Garden, 22:39-46 Betrayal in the Garden, 22:47-53 The Trial of Peter, 22:54-62 The Trial of Yeshua, 22:63-71 Date: Nisan 13 (Wednesday), April 5 Julian, A.D. 30 Passover Plot, 22:1-6 This chapter begins with the reminder of the approach of Passover and the religious leaders plotting the death of Yeshua. The parallel narratives of the conspiracy are much shorter than Luke with Matthew devoting four verses (Matt 26:1-4), Mark with two verses (Mark 4:1-2) and John with one verse (John 13:2). In addition Matthew and Mark include a retrospective story of Yeshua being anointed in Bethany by a woman with a fragrant oil, but Luke omits the story entirely. For more analysis that seeks to harmonize the accounts see my article: The Anointing of Yeshua. 1 Now the Feast of Unleavened Bread, which is called Passover, was approaching. Reference: Matthew 26:2; Mark 14:1. Now: Grk. de, conj. used to mark (1) a contrast to a preceding statement, "but;" (2) a transition in narrative or subject matter, "now, then;" or (3) a connective particle to continue a thought, "and, also," sometimes with emphasis, "indeed," "moreover" (Thayer). The second usage applies here. the Feast: Grk. ho heortē (for Heb. chag), a religious festival and in the LXX and Besekh used of the annual pilgrim festivals mandated in the Torah and held in the central place of worship (Deut 16:18). of Unleavened Bread: pl. of Grk. ho azumos (for Heb. matzah), adj. (from alpha "neg. prefix" and zumē, "leaven"), unfermented, free from leaven. The name of the festival is Chag HaMatzot, first used in Exodus 23:15. The plural form emphasizes the seven days, Nisan 15-21 (March-April), in which any bread consumed had to be unleavened. These days are so called because leaven [Heb. seor] and anything leavened [Heb. chametz] were removed from dwelling places on Nisan 14 (Lev 23:5; Num 28:16). The term azumos-matzah is first used in Genesis 19:3 of the bread that Lot prepared for the two angelic visitors. The next mention of unleavened bread is actually manna (Ex 16:12-15, 21, 31). Considering the symbolism of leaven (1Cor 5:8), feeding Israel manna for forty years was a powerful spiritual lesson. Matzah was very important in Israelite religion. Matzah was consumed as part of the ordination ceremony of priests (Ex 29:2; Lev 8:2) and presented in grain offerings (Lev 2:4) and peace offerings (Lev 7:12) and eaten by priests (Lev 6:16). However, the mention of matzah/azumos occurs most often for the bread prescribed for the Spring festival (Ex 12:14-15). During the prescribed seven days nothing leavened was to be eaten (Lev 23:6-8; Num 28:17). The name of the festival alludes to an important custom called Shabath Seor-Chametz, the removal of seor ("leaven") and chametz ("anything leavened"). The removal, involving the entire family, begins on the evening of Nisan 13 (erev Nisan 14; Pes. 1:3; 10b). Chametz refers to leavened products made from one of five grains: wheat, barley, oats, rye or spelt (Pes. 2:6; 35a). Lamps in hand, a search was made in every cupboard and corner to ensure that no trace was to be found of leaven or chametz. Homes were also cleansed of Babylonian kutah (a preserve consisting of sour milk, bread-crusts and salt), dyer's chemicals, beer, Idumean vinegar, scribe's glue and a woman's make-up (Pes. 3:1; 42a). A second search for and removal of leaven would occur on the morning of Nisan 14, which is an early tradition instituted prior to the birth of Yeshua as this quote from a prominent Sage attests: "We search [for leaven] in the evening of the fourteenth, in the morning of the fourteenth, and at the time of removal" (Pes. 2b). For a detailed explanation of the procedure for removing leaven from homes see the article at Hebrew for Christians. which: Grk. ho, definite article but used here as a demonstrative pronoun. is called: Grk. legō, pl. pres. pass. part., may mean (1) to say, speak or declare something, whether oral or written, often used to introduce quoted material; or (2) to call or give a name to something or someone. The second meaning applies here. Passover: Grk. Pascha, the Passover. In the LXX pascha translates Heb. pesakh, which is used of (1) the Passover lamb killed on Nisan 14 for the evening meal (Ex 12:21; 34:25); (2) the Passover meal itself, erev Nisan 15 (Ex 12:11), and (3) the entire seven-day festival, Nisan 15–21, in which sacrifices (Heb. chagigah) of lambs and bulls were offered (cf. Lev 23:8; Num 28:16-25; Deut 16:1-3) (BDB 820). The three meanings of pesakh are also used for pascha in this chapter: (1) the entire seven-day festival (in this verse); (2) the lamb slaughtered on Nisan 14 for the evening meal (verse 7 below); and (3) the evening Seder of erev Nisan 15 (verse 8 below). Indeed, as Luke notes in this verse, by the apostolic era the entire seven-day festival had come to be referred to as "Passover" (Josephus, Ant. II, 14:6). The Passover has been celebrated by Jews since God commanded the observance and gave instructions to Moses (Ex 12:1—13:16). The first Passover was the means of deliverance from a plague of death on the firstborn. Thereafter, Passover would celebrate God's great work of redemption (Ex 23:14-15; Lev 23:4-8; Num 28:16-25; Deut 16:1-8). The Passover deliverance made salvation distinctly national in scope and truly set Israel apart as a special people. Gentiles were allowed to share the meal as long as they were circumcised (Ex 12:48). Thus, God's provision demonstrated that His plan of salvation for Gentiles has always been based on inclusion in Israel, not as a replacement of Israel (cf. Eph 2:11-13). God expressly commanded the Israelites to celebrate the feast of Passover annually in perpetuity, that is, forever (Ex 12:14). Failing to observe Passover would be a sin (Num 9:13). Josephus summarized the schedule and reason for the continued observance: "In the month of Xanthicus, which is by us called Nisan, and is the beginning of our year, on the fourteenth day of the lunar month, when the sun is in Aries, (for in this month it was that we were delivered from bondage under the Egyptians,) the law ordained that we should every year slay that sacrifice which I before told you we slew when we came out of Egypt, and which was called the Passover" (Ant. III, 10:5). [Note: Xanthicus is the sixth month on the Macedonian calendar.] With the instructions for the first Passover God also gave direction for future observance of Passover (Ex 12:24-27; 13:1-16; 23:15; Num 9:1-14; Lev 23:5-8; Deut 16:1-8). The Israelites would eat the same basic menu as the first Passover (Num 9:5) and the only work allowed during this period was the preparation of food. For a complete explanation of the institution and observance of Passover in biblical times see my article The Passover. See also the illustrated Shlomo's Passover Adventure for the details of festival participation by a Jewish family in the first century. was approaching: Grk. eggizō, impf., come or draw near, approach. The verb indicates close proximity. In terms of the timeline this temporal reference is set in the context of Yeshua having delivered his predictions of the future in the previous chapter. Matthew and Mark identify this day as "two days before Passover," which would be Nisan 13. 2 And the chief priests and the scribes were seeking how they might kill him; for they feared the people. Reference: Matthew 26:3-4; Mark 14:1. And: Grk. kai, conj. that marks a connection or addition of words or numbers ('and, also), as well as the introduction of clauses or sentences, sometimes with emphasis ('certainly, even, indeed, namely'). In the LXX kai translates the vav (ו) character added to words for conjunctive effect. See my note on the significance of conjunctions in the Besekh. the chief priests: pl. of Grk. archiereus (from archē, "chief, pre-eminent one" and hiereus, "a priest"), a high or chief priest, i.e., a leader among priests. The plural noun included retired high priests and active holders of the priestly offices of higher rank in the Temple, some fifteen to twenty men. From Luke's narrative (Acts 4:1; 5:17) and Josephus (Ant. XX, 9:1) we know that the chief priests were generally Sadducees and together as a group formed the legal and administrative authority in the Temple. Many of the serving chief priests were ex–officio members of the Sanhedrin (Jeremias 179, 197, 230). The active chief priests held a variety of administrative posts and as a group wielded considerable power in the city. Jeremias made the following list of working chief priests based on rabbinical sources (160): ● The ruling high priest ● The deputy high priest. ● The director of the weekly division of ordinary priests. ● The director of the daily shift. ● Seven temple overseers. ● Three or more temple treasurers. A corresponding list of ranks is found in the War Scroll (1QM 2:1ff) of the Qumran documents (TDSS 149). The list in the Dead Sea Scrolls has the high priest, his deputy, twelve chief priests, and the directors of the priests' weekly courses; twelve chief Levites, and the directors of the weekly Levitical courses. and: Grk. kai. the scribes: pl. of Grk. ho grammateus refers to a legal specialist. In the Tanakh scribes were officials who served as secretaries to kings (2Sam 8:17; 1Kgs 4:3; 2Kgs 18:18; Esth 3:12; 8:9) or a professional class of learned men, 'scribes' able to read and write (Jer 8:8; 36:23, 26, 32; Ezek 9:2-3). By the first century their vocation was devoted to the preservation and interpretation of Torah and application of Jewish law. Scribes served as teachers, legal experts, judges, priests and members of the Temple ruling council. For more information on the professional development and service of scribes see the comment on Luke 5:21. were seeking: Grk. zēteō, impf., 3p-pl., to seek and here meaning to search for ways to satisfy an interest; deliberate, discuss. The imperfect tense stresses a continued seeking as to the method. Matthew says that they held a meeting in the house of Caiaphas. how: Grk. pōs, adv., how, in what manner, by what means. they might kill: Grk. anaireō, aor. subj., 3p-pl., lit. "to take up," and used here to mean to remove by causing death; kill, slay. Plummer notes that this is a favorite word of Luke since he uses twice (here and 23:32), and then eighteen times in the Acts. This verb expresses an intention to impose capital punishment. him: Grk. autos, an intensive personal pronoun, often used to distinguish a person or thing in contrast to another, or to give him (it) prominence. The pronoun may mean (1) self, (2) he, she, it, or (3) the same. The second meaning applies here regarding Yeshua. for: Grk. gar, conj., a contraction of ge ("yet") and ara ("then"), and in a broad sense means "certainly it follows that; for." they feared: Grk. phobeomai, impf. mid., 3p-pl., to fear. The verb has two basic meanings that are opposite: (1) to be in a state of apprehension, with emotions ranging from anxiety to terror; and (2) to have special respect or reverence for, i.e., deep respect. The first meaning applies here. the people: Grk. ho laos, a group of humans, understood geographically or ethnically and in Scripture often viewed in contrast with the ruling class. The term corresponds to the Heb. am-ha'aretz, "people of the land," i.e., the people of Israel. In other words the chief priests were seeking an opportunity to have Yeshua executed without a backlash from the common people who loved Yeshua. Matthew (26:5) and Mark (14:2) report that the chief priests declared that Yeshua was not to be arrested during the feast, probably meaning the time for preparing and conducting the Passover Seder. Killing Yeshua on Nissan 14 during which thousands of people were at the Temple slaughtering lambs for the Seder would have resulted in a riot. The chief priests wanted to minimize public awareness. In reality the chief priests were not averse to killing Yeshua during a festival because they had tried the year before to kill him during Sukkot (John 7:44-45) and then again during Hanukkah (John 10:31). 3 And Satan entered into Judas, the one called Iscariot, being of the number of the Twelve. Reference: John 13:27. And: Grk. de, conj. Satan: Grk. Satanas, adversary, here of the chief enemy of God and all who belong to God. Satanas may be a name, but functions more as a descriptive title of his function as heavenly prosecutor. In the Besekh satanas is never used to describe a human. In both the Besekh and the LXX satanas transliterates the Heb. satan ("sah-tahn"), which means adversary, whether human or superhuman (BDB 966). In the Besekh satanas is never used to describe a human. In the apostolic narratives Satan is depicted as an opponent of Yeshua and the good news, as a tempter and as the head of a demonic empire. Of importance is that the Adversary is not an ordinary angel, but a cherub (Ezek 28:16), and is sometimes contrasted with angels (Zech 3:1; Matt 25:41; 2Cor 11:14; Rev 12:9). Bible commentators generally regard the taunt against the king of Babylon in Isaiah 14:11-15 and the lament for the king of Tyre in Ezekiel 28:11-19 as depicting the original perfection and downfall of the "anointed cherub." In contrast to the common depiction of angels the cherub (Heb. kerub, Ex 25:19) and seraphim (Heb. seraphim, Isa 6:2) are the only heavenly beings described as having wings. entered: Grk. eiserchomai, aor., to go or enter into a geographical area, manufactured structure or other place defined in the context. into: Grk. eis, prep. that focuses on entrance, frequently in relation to a direction toward a goal or place and consequent arrival; in, into, to, unto. Judas: Grk. Ioudas, properly "Judah," a transliteration of Heb. Y'hudah ("Judah") meaning "praise YHVH," one of the twelve patriarchs. The proper name Judas was very common in the time of Yeshua, because it was made popular by the Jewish hero Judas Maccabeus who led the nation in their fight for independence from Syria in 166 BC. Only Luke mentions that Satan entered into Judas, although John says that the devil put the idea of betrayal in his heart (John 13:2). The Besekh mentions seven men named Judas, so another name is used to identify the traitor. Plummer notes that neither Matthew nor Mark mentions Satan's role in the plot. There is no implication that Judas is now like a demoniac, unable to control his own actions. Judas opened the door to Satan. He did not resist him, and Satan did not flee from him. Yeshua was appointed to suffer, but Judas need not become the traitor. the one: Grk. ho, definite article but used here as a demonstrative pronoun. called: Grk. kaleō, pres. part., to call and may mean (1) express something aloud, say; (2) solicit participation, call, invite; or (3) identify by name or give a term to. The third meaning applies here. Iscariot: Grk. Iskariōth is not a surname but a rendering into Greek of Hebrew ish-K'riot, "a man of K’riot," a town some twenty miles south of Jerusalem (Stern 38). Thus, he was the only apostle not from Galilee. being: Grk. eimi, pres. part., to be, exist; a function word used primarily to declare a state of existence, whether in the past ('was, were'), present ('are, is') or future ('will be'), often to unite a subject and predicate (BAG). of: Grk. ek, prep. used to denote derivation or separation, here the former; from, out of, out from among. the number: Grk. ho arithmos, number or total, and may refer to a specific number, a total number of something or the numerical value assigned to specific letters of the alphabet (BAG). of the Twelve: Grk. ho dōdeka, two and ten, twelve. The number refers to those men that Yeshua specifically selected out of all his disciples to be apostles, his official messengers and representatives. Choosing twelve was not a coincidence, as they represent the twelve tribes of Israel (Kasdan 104). Considering Yeshua's later prophecy it may be that the Twelve were actually recruited as members of the twelve tribes (Matt 19:28; Luke 22:30). These twelve men became the primary leaders of the Messianic community and as a group are sometimes referred to as "the Twelve" (Matt 26:14, 47; Luke 22:47; John 6:67, 70-71; 20:24; Acts 6:2; 1Cor 15:5). 4 And having gone away he discussed with the chief priests and officers how he might betray him to them. Reference: Matthew 26:14; Mark 14:10. And: Grk. kai, conj. having gone away: Grk. aperchomai, aor. part., to be in movement from a position with or without mention of a destination, to go away, depart or leave. The verb alludes to Judas departing from the company of Yeshua for his nefarious act. he discussed with: Grk. sullaleō, aor., engage thoughts with, to talk with, to speak or discuss together. the chief priests: pl. of Grk. ho archiereus. See verse 2 above. It is remarkable that Judas gained admittance to the presence of chief priests, but his errand was of special interest to them. and: Grk. kai. officers: pl. of Grk. stratēgos, leader, commander or governor. The term was used originally of a commander of an army, a general; but in the Besekh the term has three uses: (1) a Roman provincial magistrate (Acts 16:20); (2) the deputy high priest in charge of the Jerusalem temple (Acts 5:24); and (3) leaders of temple guards serving under the deputy high priest (Luke 22:4, 52). The third usage has application here. In the Besekh the term occurs only in the writings of Luke. how: Grk. pōs, adv. See the previous verse. he might betray: Grk. paradidōmi, aor. subj., to convey from one position to another, here of turning over something to another; hand over, deliver. him: Grk. autos, personal pronoun; i.e., Yeshua. to them: pl. of Grk. autos; i.e. the religious leaders. Regardless of their fear of the people, the opportunity presented to the chief priests by Judas was too valuable to pass up. This event took place two days before Passover (cf. Matt 26:2, 14; Mark 14:1). This could well have happened Tuesday evening (Wednesday by Jewish reckoning), prompted by the great debates that took place Tuesday morning. 5 And they were glad and agreed to give him money. Reference: Matthew 26:15; Mark 14:11. And: Grk. kai, conj. they were glad: Grk. chairō, aor. pass., 3p-pl., to rejoice or be glad, be joyful or full of joy. and: Grk. kai. agreed: Grk. suntithēmi, aor., 3p-pl., to reach a meeting of minds about something; agree, decide. to give: Grk. didōmi, aor. inf., generally to give something to someone, often with the focus on generosity, but may be used to mean bestow, hand over, impart, or entrust. him: Grk. autos, personal pronoun; i.e., Judas. money: Grk. argurion may mean (1) the precious metal silver and fig. of wealth; (2) silver as a medium of exchange, money in general; or (3) specifically a silver coin. The second meaning applies here, specified in Matthew 26:15 as thirty pieces of silver. 6 And he agreed, and began seeking an opportunity to betray him to them apart from a crowd. Reference: Matthew 26:16; Mark 14:11. And: Grk. kai, conj. he agreed: Grk. exomologeō, aor., to agree or confess, here meaning to accept an offer and bind oneself to a promise; agree. and: Grk. kai. began seeking: Grk. zēteō, impf. See verse 2 above. an opportunity: Grk. eukairia, a favorable opportunity or timely moment. to betray: Grk. paradidōmi, aor. inf. See verse 4 above. him: Grk. autos, personal pronoun; Yeshua. to them: pl. of Grk. autos; the chief priests. apart from: Grk. ater, prep., apart from, without. The preposition occurs in the Besekh only in this chapter. a crowd: Grk. ochlos, an aggregate of people or an assembled company of people; crowd, multitude, great number. The arrest must take place when Yeshua is not surrounded by the public; otherwise there might be a riot (cf. Matt 26:5; Mark 14:2; Luke 20:19). Date: Nisan 14 (Thursday), April 6 Julian, A.D. 30 Preparation for Passover Observance, 22:7-13 7 Then came the day of Unleavened Bread on which the Passover lamb had to be killed. Reference: Matthew 26:17; Mark 14:12. Then: Grk. de, conj. came: Grk. erchomai, aor., to come or arrive, often with focus on a position from which physical action or movement takes place. The "arrival" contrasts with the verb "approaching in verse 1 above. the day: Grk. ho hēmera may refer to (1) the daylight hours from sunrise to sunset, (2) the civil or legal day that included the night, (3) an appointed day for a special purpose or (4) a longer or imprecise period, such as a timeframe for accomplishing something or a time of life or activity (BAG). The third meaning applies here. By Jewish reckoning this day began at sunset on Wednesday and here the evening of Nisan 13. of Unleavened Bread: pl. of Grk. azumos. See verse 1 above. on: Grk. en, prep., with the root meaning of "within," is generally used to mark position; among, at, in, on, or with (DM 105). which: Grk. hos, relative pronoun used to specify or give significance to the mention of a person, thing, or piece of information in the text; who, which, what, that. the Passover lamb: Grk. ho pascha. See verse 1 above. The singular form of the noun does not mean only one lamb was killed. Rather the singular form makes the noun typological for all the lambs slaughtered for consumption in the Passover meal. Some versions make the point by rendering the noun as plural "lambs" (CEV, ERV, EXB, GNT, ICB, NCV). had: Grk. dei, impf., impersonal verb from deō ('lack, stand in need of') and thus conveys the idea of something that's necessary, something that must or needs to happen; it behooves, it is necessary, must, ought. The verb signifies a legal necessity. to be killed: Grk. thuō, pres. pass. inf., may mean (1) to offer to deity; (2) to sacrifice by slaying a victim; or (3) to slay or kill (Abbott-Smith). The third meaning applies here. Most versions have "to be sacrificed," which may be misleading. The ritual slaughter of the lamb to be eaten at the Seder is called Korban Pesach. The lamb selected must not be more than a year old. Plummer notes that the lambs were ordinarily killed about 2:30−5:30 PM in the Court of the Priests and the slaughter followed a specific ritual procedure. Each head of the company sharing the lamb slew the animal, whose blood was caught in a bowl by a priest and poured at the foot of the altar of burnt-offering. (See Edersheim-Temple, Chap. 11.) 8 And he sent Peter and John, having said, "Go, prepare the Passover for us, so that we may eat it." Reference: Matthew 26:18; Mark 14:13. And: Grk. kai, conj. he sent: Grk. apostellō, aor., to cause to move from one position to another, but often to dispatch an authoritative personal representative or a messenger on a specific mission or with a particular purpose. Peter: Grk. Petros, personal name meaning "a small stone" (Abbot-Smith). Petros translates the Hebrew name Kępha ("rock"), a loanword in Hebrew (BDB 495), rendered as Cephas in Christian versions. Peter's birth name was Simon (Luke 4:38). Peter first met Yeshua in the Winter of A.D. 26/27 in Judea (John 1:40-41), whereupon Yeshua announced that Simon would in the future be known as Kępha (John 1:42). See the explanatory note there. Even though Yeshua gave him a new name he only used "Simon" in directly addressing him (Luke 7:40; verse 31 below). For a review of Simon's life and ministry see my article Simon Peter: Fisherman-Apostle. and: Grk. kai. John: Grk. Iōannēs, which attempts to transliterate Heb. Yochanan ("YHVH is gracious"), and rendered in almost all English Bibles as "John." Messianic Jewish versions (CJB, MW, MJLT, OJB) have "Yochanan." When John's name appears with his brother in the Synoptic Narratives he is almost always listed second, suggesting that he was the younger of the two. For more biographical information on John see my web article Witnesses of the Good News. Peter and John, along with his brother Jacob, formed Yeshua's innermost circle of associates and were present for some of his significant miracles. Peter and John would later be the most prominent leaders in the Messianic community before the call and ministry of Paul. having said: Grk. legō, aor. part. See verse 1 above. Only Luke reports the assigned task. Go: Grk. poreuomai, pl. aor. pass. part., to move from one part of an area to another, to make one's way; go, journey, travel. The aorist participle would be lit. "having gone," which assumes obedience, but Bible versions uniformly translate the participle as a command. W.D. Davies points out that non-biblical Jewish writings used the participle as imperative in hortatory instructions (130f), so Yeshua's use of the participle is consistent with this practice. prepare: Grk. hetoimazō, aor. imp., 2p-pl., put in a state of readiness; make ready, prepare. the Passover: Grk. ho pascha. See verse 1 above. The assigned task is specific. The apostles did not have to be concerned with removal of leaven since that task would have already been accomplished by the homeowner. for us: Grk. humeis, pl. second person pronoun; i.e., the twelve apostles and Yeshua. so that: Grk. hina, conj. used to add an idea that completes an intention expressed; in order that, so that. we may eat it: Grk. esthiō, aor. subj., 1p-pl., to consume food in the mouth. The plural form includes Yeshua and his disciples. Eating the Passover refers to the meal consumed in the evening of Nisan 14 (erev Nisan 15), which is how the expression is used the first time it appears in the Torah (Ex 12:4, 11, 43, 48). Preparation for the Passover Seder involved many details: the site, the slaughter of the lamb, and the meal preparation with its required foods. Scholars that assert Yeshua did not intend to "eat the Passover" with his disciples in effect ignore what Yeshua actually said and impugn the integrity of the apostles. 9 And they said to him, "Where do you want us to prepare it?" Reference: Matthew 26:17; Mark 14:12. And: Grk. de, conj. they said: Grk. legō, aor., 3p-pl. See verse 1 above. to him: Grk. autos, personal pronoun. Where: Grk. pou, adv. of place; where, at which place. do you want: Grk. thelō, pres., to have a desire for something or have a purpose for something; will, wish, desire. us to prepare it: Grk. hetoimazō, aor. subj., 1p-pl. See the previous verse. The question reveals the ignorance of the apostles regarding Yeshua's plans for the evening. Yeshua apparently had an "agent" unknown to the Twelve, although perhaps among the Seventy, who provided assistance in the logistics of planning the Seder. Secrecy was necessary to prevent any interruption of the Seder. Thus commissioned the apostles were fully ready to carry out Yeshua's instructions. 10 And he said to them, "Behold, having entered the city, a man will meet you carrying a jar of water; follow him into the house into which he enters. Reference: Matthew 26:18; Mark 14:13. And: Grk. de, conj. he said: Grk. legō, aor. See verse 1 above. to them: pl. of Grk. autos, personal pronoun. Behold: Grk. idou, aor. imp., demonstrative interjection that arouses the attention of hearers or readers; (you) see, look, behold (BAG). In the LXX idou translates Heb. hinneh, lo, behold, which often serves to enliven divine monologues and narratives, particularly to invite closer consideration of something (e.g. Gen 1:29). The Hebraistic interjection occurs 36 times in Luke's narrative and here alerts the apostles of something to watch for. having entered: Grk. eiserchomai, aor. part. See verse 3 above. the city: Grk. ho polis, a population center whose size or number of inhabitants could range broadly, a city or town. The city is Jerusalem. The instruction was given at a point outside the city, probably the Mount of Olives (cf. 21:37). a man: Grk. anthrōpos, human being, man or mankind. The noun is used here of an adult male. will meet: Grk. sunantaō, fut., come upon so as to be face to face with someone at some point without suggestion of previous agreement on location; encounter, meet with. you: Grk. humeis, pl. second person pronoun. carrying: Grk. bastazō, pres. part., sustain a burden; bear, carry. a jar: Grk. keramion, an earthen vessel; jar, jug, pot, pitcher. The term refers to a container made of clay, typically used for holding liquids such as water or wine. of water: Grk. hudōr, the physical element of water. follow: Grk. akoloutheō, aor. imp., 2p-pl., may mean (1) to be in motion in sequence behind someone; (2) to be in close association with someone, especially as a disciple. The first meaning is intended here. him: Grk. autos; the man with the water jar. into: Grk. eis, prep. the house: Grk. ho oikia may mean either (1) a habitable structure, house; or (2) fig. a group within a house, household or family. The first meaning is intended here. into: Grk. eis. which: Grk. hos, relative pronoun. he enters: Grk. eisporeuomai, pres. mid., to go in, to come in, to enter, whether a locality or a structure, here the latter. The reference to a man carrying a jar of water who was to be followed suggests a prearranged signal. The gender is significant because in Israelite culture only women carried water jars and men carried waters-skins (Geldenhuys 556; e.g., Gen 24:11; 1Sam 9:11; John 4:7). 11 And you shall say to the master of the house, 'The Teacher says to you, "Where is the guest room where I may eat the Passover with my disciples?"' Reference: Matthew 26:18; Mark 14:14. And: Grk. kai, conj. you shall say: Grk. legō, fut., 2p-pl. See verse 1 above. to the master: Grk. ho oikodespotēs, owner or steward, one who rules or manages a household. While the noun is masculine it is not impossible that the person would be a woman. Paul uses the verb form oikodespoteō (1Tim 5:14) to refer to a wife who manages the household. Normally women did the work of preparing the Passover meal. of the house: Grk. ho oikia. See the previous verse. Church tradition assigned the location of Yeshua's Passover to the house belonging to the parents of John Mark (Lane 527; Geldenhuys 556), who is known to have been a resident in Jerusalem (Acts 12:12). Geldenhuys suggests the "owner" may have been the father of John Mark. In Acts 12:12 the house is identified as "of Miriam," the mother of John Mark, indicating that Mark's father had died before then. Otherwise, Mark himself already acted as master of the house for his widowed mother. Of historical interest is that when Yeshua's followers who had fled to Pella shortly before the destruction of Jerusalem (A.D. 70) were again allowed to inhabit the south-western portion of the city they rebuilt the ruins of this house into a building for holding religious meetings. The Teacher: Grk. ho didaskalos, teacher or instructor who regularly engaged in the imparting of knowledge or skills, a vocation of special status in Jewish culture. The definite article gives special emphasis to the title. Some Messianic Jewish versions render the noun as "Rabbi" (CJB, MW, OJB). In the first century "Rabbi" was not the title of a congregational shepherd, but denoted a prominent Sage or Torah scholar of the era, such as Hillel and Gamaliel. Didaskalos is a functional synonym of "Rabbi" (Grk. Rhabbi; cf. John 1:38), but the apostles could have used moreh, the common Hebrew word for teacher (cf. 2Kgs 17:28; 2Chr 15:3; Isa 9:15; 30:20). It is noteworthy that the Greek title rhabbi does not occur in Luke's narrative at all. says: Grk. legō, pres. to you: Grk. su, second person pronoun. Where: Grk. pou, adv. See verse 9 above. is: Grk. eimi, pres. See verse 3 above. the guest room: Grk. kataluma, a reception area or guest room. Jewish hospitality in Jerusalem during the time of the major festivals required that if a person had a room available he would give it to any pilgrim who asked to use it without charge, in order that he might have a place to celebrate the feast. The practice was based on the principle that the residents did not really own the city, but it belonged to all the tribes (Yom. 12a; Meg. 26a). where: Grk. hopou, adv., where, in what place. Use of the adverb implies a specific destination. I may eat: Grk. esthiō, aor. subj. See verse 8 above. the Passover: Grk. ho pascha. See verse 1 above. with: Grk. meta, prep. denoting either (1) association or accompaniment, among, with; or (2) sequence, after, behind; here the former. my: Grk. egō, first person pronoun. disciples: pl. of Grk. ho mathētēs (from manthanō, to learn), one who learns through instruction from a teacher; adherent, learner, pupil, disciple. The term "disciple" is used most often for devoted followers of Yeshua of which there were many (including women). See my article The Call of Discipleship. 12 And that one will show to you a large, furnished upper room; prepare it there." Reference: Mark 14:15. And that one: Grk. kakeinos (from kai, "and," and ekeinos, "that one"), demonstrative pronoun in reference to someone or something mentioned earlier in the narrative; 'also that one' or 'even that one.' The pronoun alludes to the master of the house mentioned in the previous verse. The great majority of versions translate the masculine pronoun as "And he," on the assumption that the person referenced is a man, perhaps John Mark. A few versions have "the owner" (CEV, ERV, MSG). will show: Grk. deiknumi, fut., may mean to show (1) so as to be observed by another, point out, make known; or (2) or so as to be understood by another, explain, demonstrate. The first usage applies here. to you: Grk. humeis, pl. second person pronoun; i.e., Peter and John. a large: Grk. megas, adj., exceeding a standard and therefore impressive. The focus here is on size. furnished: Grk. strōnnuō, perf. pass. part., to equip, used of a room for its contents such as carpets or couches for dining. The point is that all the items required to enjoy the meal would be in place. upper room: Grk. anagaion, a room on an upper floor, probably accessed by an external staircase. In ancient times an internal staircase was not a feature of private homes. prepare it: Grk. hetoimazō, aor. imp., 2p-pl. See verse 8 above. there: Grk. ekei, adv., in that place. 13 And having gone they found everything just as he had said to them; and they prepared the Passover. Reference: Matthew 26:19; Mark 14:16. And: Grk. de, conj. having gone: Grk aperchomai, aor. part. See verse 4 above. The verb depicts the apostles departing their location outside the city, most likely the Mount of Olives. they found everything: Grk. heuriskō, aor., to discover or find something, especially after searching. just as: Grk. kathōs, adv. emphasizing similarity, conformity, proportion or manner; as, just as. he had said: Grk. ereō, plperf., denoting speech in progress, to speak or say. The pluperfect tense denotes action in the past that is complete. to them: pl. of Grk. autos, personal pronoun. The verbal clause indicates the apostles discovered the accuracy of Yeshua's instructions. They found the man with the water jar who led them to the right house in which they met the master of the house who would assist them with their assigned task. and: Grk. kai, conj. they prepared: Grk. hetoimazō, aor., 3p-pl. See verse 8 above. the Passover: Grk. ho Pascha. See verse 1 above. The verbal phrase alludes to the custom Kun [preparation] Pesach. The verb does not imply the apostles actually cooked the food, but they insured that everything necessary for the Passover observance was in place. Santala points out that the one making the arrangements had to concern himself with five things (203). Yeshua took care of two of those items. He arranged a place to hold the celebration and he chose a company of at least ten people to partake of the meal. The most important actions for the disciples was to acquire the lamb (Heb. seh), take it to the Temple to be slaughtered, and then take it to the arranged place where it was roasted on a pomegranate spit. Under no circumstances was the lamb to be eaten raw or boiled with water. The matzah was prepared as a flatbread, using just whole grain flour, water and oil. The original instruction (Ex 12:39) described its preparation as "disc-shaped" (Heb. uggah). The dough prepared by hand was flattened, then poked or pricked with a sharp instrument to keep the finished product from puffing up and baked at a high temperature. These food items, along with the bitter herbs or maror could be easily found in public markets. By the first century the Passover meal had expanded to include menu items not mentioned in the Torah instructions as well as some changes to the conduct of the Seder. For the meal preparation, three customs may be noted. First, the Mishnah identifies different kinds of produce that satisfied the requirement of maror (Pes. 2:7): romaine or other dark lettuce, endive or chicory. (Horseradish, which is commonly used today, wasn't adopted until the 14th or 15th century.) Maror symbolized the bitterness of slavery. Second, the Passover meal included four cups of wine (Pes. 10:1). Festivals typically began and ended with a cup of wine, but the Sages believed that for the most joyous evening of the year two more should be drunk. The cups were not identified, but the cups symbolize the four promises of Exodus 6:6-7. See the explanation of the four cups by Tim Hegg of TorahResource. Third, the meal included the use of a dipping sauce, called charoset, a mixture of fruit, nuts and wine or vinegar (Pes. 2:9). The charoset symbolized the mortar used by the Israelites in the building projects (Pes. 2:9; 10:3; 30b). The karpas (parsley), beitzah (hard-boiled egg), and afikomen (dessert piece of matzah), common in present Passover observance, did not figure in Yeshua's Passover, since they were added centuries later. Passover illustrates that from the Hebrew perspective "theology is not only taught, it is also eaten" (Barney Kasdan, God's Appointed Times, 27). After making all the necessary arrangements for the meal Peter and John returned to Yeshua to no doubt report on the completion of their mission. Erev Nisan 15 (Thursday evening), April 7 Julian, A.D. 30 Last Supper and New Covenant Inauguration, 22:14-20 Christians generally refer to the Passover meal Yeshua ate as the "Last Supper." Indeed it is John who first used the noun "supper" to describe the Passover Seder of Yeshua (John 13:2, 4; 21:20). Some scholars find conflict between the Synoptic Narratives and John's narrative of Yeshua's last supper. For a discussion of these supposed issues and arguments for reconciling John's narrative with the Synoptic narratives see my article The Last Supper of Yeshua. In Judaism the Passover evening meal is referred to by the Heb. term Seder ("say-dur"), which means order or arrangement and refers to the organization of the evening. The occasion is much more than a meal; it is a religious celebration and worship service that includes food. The Torah does not provide a chronological sequence of the evening activities, but by the first century at least a dozen distinct customs were observed, and these are featured in the composite record of the apostolic narratives. The evening observance served a dual purpose. Besides conducting the traditional Seder Yeshua inaugurates the New Covenant by giving special meaning to the bread and cup, thereby providing the basis for Paul's later instruction to disciples about the Lord's Supper. For a review of the customs Yeshua observed and a discussion of Paul's institution of the Lord's Supper, as well as the change in theology and observance in Christianity, see my article The Messianic Meal. 14 And when the hour had come to pass, he reclined at table, and the apostles with him. Reference: Matthew 26:20; Mark 14:17-18. And: Grk. kai, conj. when: Grk. hote, temporal adv., when, at which time. the hour: Grk. ho hōra, a short space of time, the twelfth part of a day; hour. The Seder began after sundown, called erev Nisan 15. had come to pass: Grk. ginomai, aor. mid., to transfer from one state to another; come to be, become, take place, happen, or occur. This syntax is considered a Hebraism because it imitates the frequent use of the Heb. v'hayah, "and it came to pass" in the historical narratives of the Tanakh (first in Gen 1:3). The verb is used to advance the temporal setting and introduce an important event that includes some dramatic action by God or a Bible personality that impacts biblical history or serves God's sovereign planning. he reclined at table: Grk. anapiptō (from ana, "up" or "back," and piptō, "to fall"), aor., to fall back, then recline, especially at a meal. Some versions have "sat down," but the verb for sitting is kathēmai (Luke 5:27). The physical posture is essentially sitting and leaning backward. Pharisee rules specified that reclining was not lying on the back or reclining on the right side, but only on the left side to facilitate eating with the right hand (Pes. 108a). Many versions add "at table," which is not in the Greek text. See the note on verse 21 below, which mentions a table. and: Grk. kai. the apostles: pl. of Grk. ho apostolos, one that is sent as an official representative, apostle. Apostolos appears in no other early Jewish literature, but it is grounded in Jewish culture in the office of shaliach. First century Judaism recognized the office of "apostle," Heb. shaliach, who acted as an agent or messenger for someone with the full authority of the sender (Jastrow 1579). Yeshua appointed the Twelve as apostles (Luke 6:13). Matthew and Mark specify "the Twelve." with: Grk. sun ("soon"), prep. used to denote accompaniment or close identification, here the former. him: Grk. autos, personal pronoun. The apostles were also reclining. The mention of apostles does not exclude the possibility of other disciples being present, such as Luke. Indeed Luke's narrative with its unique content reads like an eye-witness account. The narratives of Yeshua's Passover observance do not give a description of the relative positions of all the apostles. Edersheim suggests that Judas had gained the chief position on Yeshua's left (cf. Matt 26:23; Mark 14:20), whereas John was on his right (John 13:23). Peter may well have been across the table from Yeshua in the "last" position as implied by John's narrative (John 13:5-6). See Edersheim's graphic illustration of the last supper seating arrangement here. 15 And he said to them, "With longing I have desired to eat this Passover with you before I am to suffer; Plummer notes that the whole of this verse and most of the next are peculiar to Luke. And: Grk. kai, conj. he said: Grk. legō, aor. See verse 1 above. to: Grk. pros, prep., lit. "near or facing" (DM 110), to, towards, with. Here the preposition denotes being in company with others and speaking face to face. them: pl. of Grk. autos, personal pronoun. With longing: Grk. epithumia may mean either (1) a strong feeling or interest, desire or longing; or (2) an inordinate or improper desire, 'craving.' The first meaning applies here. I have desired: Grk. epithumeō, aor., may mean (1) have a strong desire for, desire, long for; or (2) have inordinate desire, implying intent to acquire, covet, lust. The first meaning is intended here. Plummer notes that the combination of a cognate noun and a verb of action is a Hebraism common in the LXX (e.g., Gen 31:30; Ex 21:20; Deut 7:26). to eat: Grk. esthiō, aor. inf. See verse 8 above. The infinitive is used here to express purpose. this: Grk. houtos, demonstrative pronoun signifying a person, thing or action set forth in narrative that precedes or follows it; this. Passover: Grk. pascha. See verse 1 above. "This Passover" refers to the observance in progress with the disciples. One can easily imagine Yeshua making this declaration while looking at the food set before him. Presumptively, the meal included lamb (Grk. pascha, Matt 26:17; Mark 14:12; Luke 22:7, 11, 15). The Mishnah provides some instruction on setting the food before the host. "Herbs and vegetables are then to be brought; the lettuce is then to be immersed, part thereof eaten, and the remainder left until after the meal arranged for the night is eaten; then unleavened cakes are to be placed before him as well as the lettuce, sauce (charoset), and two kinds of cooked food, although it is not strictly obligatory to use the same; R. Elazar ben Zadok, however, said, that it is obligatory. During the existence of the Holy Temple, the paschal sacrifice was then placed before him." (Pes. 10:3; 114a) Plummer contradicts the very definition of Passover by saying that this observance need not imply a lamb. Lumby also contradicts Yeshua by saying that the expression may suggest that this was not the actual Jewish Paschal meal, but one which was intended to supersede it by a Passover of far more divine significance. Bengel comments that the expression "this Passover" means that the observance will be especially memorable because his enemies would not leave him time to enjoy the festival week. This Passover could serve as a "bookend" event in contrast with the Passover observance when Yeshua was twelve and he expressed his first awareness of his heavenly mission (Luke 2:49). with: Grk. meta, prep. See verse 11 above. you: Grk. humeis, pl. second person pronoun. Again the plain words of Yeshua rebut the claims of some modern scholars that he did not observe Passover. before: Grk. pro, prep. indicating precedence, used here in a temporal sense; earlier than, before. I: Grk. egō, first person pronoun. am to suffer: Grk. paschō, aor. inf., to experience strong emotion, often with a negative connotation in association with various afflictions and here specifically in reference to his anticipation of trials, rejection and death. The infinitive expresses result. This is the third time in Luke that Yeshua stresses that suffering awaits him (cf. Luke 9:22; 17:25). 16 for I say to you that never shall I eat it until when it is fulfilled in the Kingdom of God." for: Grk. gar, conj. See verse 2 above. I say: Grk. legō, pres. See verse 1 above. to you: Grk. humeis, pl. second person pronoun; the apostles. that: Grk. hoti, conj. used for (1) defining a demonstrative pronoun; (2) introducing a subordinate clause as complementary of a preceding verb; (3) indicating causality with an inferential aspect; or (4) introducing a direct quotation and functioning as quotation marks. The fourth usage applies here. never: Grk. ou mē, adv., lit. "not, not." This combination of negative particles is the strongest form of negation in the Greek language. The double negative has the effect of guaranteeing the certainty of the following action in the future. shall I eat: Grk. esthiō, aor. subj. See verse 8 above. it: neut. of Grk. autos, personal pronoun. See verse 2 above. The pronoun refers back to the mention of Passover in the previous verse. Many versions insert "again" to stress the future action. until: Grk. heōs, adv., a marker of limit, here of time. when: Grk. hotou (from hostis, "whatever, which"), used here as an adv. to emphasize "during which at the same time." it is fulfilled: Grk. plēroō, aor. pass. subj., may mean (1) cause to abound in content to a maximum, fill; or (2) to bring to fruition or completion, complete, fulfill, fill up, carry out. The second meaning applies here. The clause points to action completed in the future. in: Grk. en, prep. with the root meaning of "within," generally used to mark location or position, but also agency, association, direction, and means; among, at, by, in, on or within (DM 114). the kingdom: Grk. ho basileia (from basileus, "king"), kingship, royal power, or territory ruled over by a king. For the use of the term the size of the territory was immaterial, ranging from a city to a country to an empire. The noun is used here of royal reign. of God: Grk. ho theos, properly God, the omnipotent, omniscient, omnipresent Creator and owner of all things (Gen 1:1). The only God in existence is the God of Israel (Ex 5:1; Isa 44:6; 45:5-6; 46:9; Luke 1:68). By the first century Jewish teaching associated the Kingdom of God with the reign of the Messiah on earth. Ancient Jewish prayer liturgy, such as Aleinu and Kaddish, include the phrase that "God may establish His Kingdom speedily." For an explanation of the important doctrine of the Kingdom of God see my comment on Luke 4:43. In this verse Yeshua declares a prediction of when he will next eat the Passover. The future anticipation of Passover observance no doubt is a reminder of Yeshua's previous promise that his disciples would, "recline at the table with Abraham, Isaac and Jacob in the kingdom of heaven" (Matt 8:11; cf. Matt 26:29; Luke 13:38). Yeshua's prediction may also hint that the day would come when his Jewish disciples would not be able to celebrate Passover in the complete sense due to the destruction of the temple (cf. John 4:21). Moreover, when Yeshua returns and establishes his millennial kingdom, he will oversee the restoration of key festivals that God ordained, such as Rosh Chodesh, Shabbat, Pesach, Shavuot and Sukkot (Isa 66:22-23; Ezek 46:1-11; Zeph 3:18; Zech 14:16; cf. Matt 26:29; Col 2:16-17). Christians should not imagine they will be exempt from such observances. Plummer engages in historical revisionism and replacement theology by saying "The Passover of which Christ will partake after having fulfilled the type, is the Christian Eucharist, in which He joins with the faithful in the Kingdom of God on earth." Plummer echoes the contention of the church fathers that the Gentile Church superseded Israel as the Kingdom of God (so Augustine, City of God). Similarly, Gill and Exell suggest that by these words Yeshua abolished the observance of Passover by his followers. Indeed the Church Council of Nicea II (787) banned Christian observance of all Jewish festivals. On the contrary there is no statement anywhere in the apostolic writings that "Kingdom of God" was code language for Christianity and the Church, nor observance of any of God's Appointed Times by Jewish disciples had been abolished. Paul was a devout Pharisee (Acts 23:6; 26:5; Php 3:5) and faithful to observe the prescribed holy days (Acts 13:14, 44; 16:13; 17:2; 18:4; 20:6, 16; cf. 1Cor 9:20; 10:32). Paul exhorted disciples to keep the Feast of Unleavened Bread (1Cor 5:7-8) and other holy days (Col 2:16). 17 And having taken a cup, having spoken the b'rakhah, he then said, "Take this and share it among yourselves; And: Grk. kai, conj. having taken: Grk. dechomai, aor. mid. part., to take into one's hands, receive or welcome, frequently with the connotation of enthusiastic acceptance. a cup: Grk. potērion, a domestic item used for drinking, cup, with both literal and figurative uses. The narrative seems to imply there was only one cup on the table, having been provided by the host. This cup of wine, diluted with water, was the first of the evening. having spoken the b'rakhah: Grk. eucharisteō, aor. part., to thank or to give thanks. The verb occurs often in the apostolic narratives to describe offering a b'rakhah ("blessing") for food (e.g. Matt 15:36; 26:27; Mark 8:6; 14:23; Luke 22:17; John 6:11; Acts 27:35). The evening Seder began with a cup of wine and the Kiddush ("sanctification") blessing, Barukh atah Adonai, borei p'ri hagafen, "Blessed are you O Lord" (quoting Psalm 119:12; Ber. 11b), "who creates the fruit of the vine" (Ber. 6:1). Only Luke mentions this first cup specified in Pesachim 10:4. There was also a standard of quality for the wine: "The Kiddush of the day must be proclaimed on such wine only as is fit to be brought as a drink offering upon the altar" (Baba Bathra 97a). he then said: Grk. legō, aor. See verse 1 above. Take: Grk. lambanō, aor. imp., 2p-pl., to lay or take hold of, to take in the hand or receive. this: Grk. houtos, demonstrative pronoun. See verse 15 above. and: Grk. kai. share it: Grk. diamerizō, aor. imp., 2p-pl., cause to be in parts; divide, distribute, apportion. among: Grk. eis, prep., lit. "into." See verse 3 above. yourselves: pl. of Grk. heautou, reflexive pronoun of the second person. For the men in the room to share one cup of wine probably meant that each would drink no more than a sip. 18 for I say to you, never shall I drink of the fruit of the vine from now until the Kingdom of God comes." Reference: Matthew 26:29; Mark 14:25. for: Grk. gar, conj. See verse 2 above. I say: Grk. legō, pres. See verse 1 above. to you: Grk. humeis, pl. second person pronoun; the apostles. never: Grk. ou mē, adv., lit. "not, not." See verse 16 above. shall I drink: Grk. pinō, aor. subj., to take in a liquid, to drink, here of wine. of the fruit: Grk. ho genēma (from gennaō, "to beget"), may refer to (1) offspring or progeny; or (2) products of agriculture, fruit. The second meaning applies here. of the vine: Grk. ho ampelos, a climbing plant with tendrils, a vine, specifically a grape vine. Stern points out that we can be sure Yeshua used the traditional Jewish blessing over wine because he quotes from it the phrase "fruit of the vine" (80). from: Grk. apo, prep. used generally as a marker of either separation or origin, here the latter. now: Grk. nun, adv., marker of time in the present, now, or emphatically 'just now.' until: Grk. heōs, adv. See verse 16 above. the Kingdom of God: See verse 16 above. comes: Grk. erchomai, aor. subj. See verse 7 above. Again Yeshua alludes to the establishment of his Messianic Kingdom in the age to come. Matthew and Mark associate this saying with the third cup, since they don't mention any of the other three cups. The decision of Yeshua not to drink of the remaining three cups of wine, while contrary to the Mishnah instruction did not violate Torah. Wine symbolized the joy of the Passover celebration, but for Yeshua this night represented betrayal, suffering and death. This night Yeshua took on the vow of the Nazarite, which the disciples would certainly respect. Like the Nazarite's vow there would be a limit to its duration. 19 And having taken bread and having spoken the b'rakhah, he broke it and gave it to them, saying, "This is my body which is given for you; do this for remembrance of me." Reference: Matthew 26:26; Mark 14:22. And: Grk. kai, conj. having taken: Grk. lambanō, aor. part. See verse 17 above. bread: Grk. artos (Heb. lechem), which refers to a baked product produced from cereal grain and also to food or nourishment in general. The bread used in the Seder could be made from wheat, barley, spelt, rye, and oats (Pes. 2:6). Since Passover occurred at the time of the barley harvest, this would most likely been the grain used for the bread on this occasion. Some scholars think that the use of artos instead of azumos (unleavened bread) in the narrative suggests that he and his disciples ate leavened bread in this meal, in spite of the fact that unleavened bread is mentioned in verse 1 and 7 above. If the meal included leavened bread then it would not have been a true Passover meal (Pes. 9:3; 10:4-5). Actually, the use of artos contains a hidden spiritual truth. In the LXX artos is used of the showbread maintained in the Temple (Ex 25:30; 40:23; 1Sam 21:6; 1Chr 9:32; 23:29; 28:16; 2Chr 2:4; 13:11; 29:18; Neh 10:33) and in the Synoptic Narratives (Matt 12:4; Mark 2:26; Luke 6:4). The showbread was made without leaven (Lev 8:2, 26; 24:5). This usage demonstrates that the definition of artos is not based on its leaven content. The use of artos in Synoptic narratives follows the specific mention that the event occurred at the beginning of the Feast of Unleavened Bread (Heb. matzah; Grk. azumos). It could well be that the use of artos hinted at the showbread. The showbread was intended for consumption by the priests. The one exception occurred when David took this bread to feed his men when he was fleeing from King Saul (1Sam 21:6; Mark 2:25). This understanding gives a deeper meaning of the significance of the matzah that Yeshua held up. Yeshua, the Great High Priest and Davidic King, was offering the bread intended only for priests to his disciples who would share in his body. As showbread Yeshua pointed to his people becoming a kingdom of priests (Eph 4:12; 1Pet 2:5-9; Rev 1:6; 5:10; 20:6). It's important to stress that the bread that Yeshua broke was unleavened. Leaven symbolizes sin (1Cor 5:7-8; cf. Luke 12:1). If Yeshua had used leavened bread in the Passover meal ritual, then he would have marked himself as a sinner (Ex 12:15, 19; 34:25). Only unleavened bread in the sacred meal can symbolize the sinless Messiah who was sacrificed for the world. Thus, for Christians to use leavened bread in the Lord's Supper ritual, as occurs in some churches, is a grave insult to our Master. and having spoken the b'rakhah: Grk. eucharisteō, aor. part. See verse 17 above. The Matthew and Mark parallel passages have eulogeō, "to offer a blessing." Luke's choice of the verb, instead of eulogeō, is probably to stress the function of the b'rakhah in the meal liturgy. For this verb here God is explicitly the recipient of the thanksgiving. According to Jewish custom Yeshua offered the prescribed blessing (b'rakhah) over the bread: Barukh attah Adonai, ha-motzi lechem min ha-aretz, "Blessed are You, O LORD who brings forth bread from the earth" (Ber. 6:1). he broke it: Grk. klaō, aor., to break off pieces from unleavened bread. The verb stresses the fact that matzah is brittle and not soft like pita bread. He did not tear the bread, he broke it. and: Grk. kai, conj. gave it: Grk. didōmi, aor. See verse 5 above. to them: pl. of Grk. autos, personal pronoun; the disciples. After breaking the bread Yeshua distributed the pieces around the table. saying: Grk. legō, pres. part. See verse 1 above. This: Grk. houtos, demonstrative pronoun, used in reference to the bread. is: Grk. eimi, pres. See verse 3 above. my: Grk. egō, first person pronoun, used in the possessive sense. body: Grk. sōma, a structured physical unit in contrast to its parts, body of human or animal, whether living or dead, but normally of a human body. The parabolic comparison is pregnant with meaning since in the process of making the matzah, holes were pierced in it to prevent it puffing up. In terms of a visual aid we should consider the pierced matzah represented the manner of Yeshua's death (John 19:34, 37; cf. Zech 12:10). which: Grk. ho, definite article but used here as a relative pronoun. is given: Grk. didōmi, pres. mid. part. for: Grk. huper, prep., lit. "over, above," used to express a stance of concern or interest relating to someone or something, here emphasizing a supportive aspect; for, in behalf of, in the interest of. you: Grk. humeis, pl. second person pronoun; i.e., the Jewish disciples. The act of giving the disciples pierced matzah served as an acted out parable of Yeshua's pierced body being given as an atoning sacrifice. While Yeshua died for the whole world, his atoning sacrifice was especially for the covenant people. Yeshua stresses that his body, meaning his life, was given; it was not taken from him (John 10:17-18). This perspective will become part of Paul's refrain that Yeshua "died for us" (Rom 5:6, 8, 15; 6:8; 8:34; 14:9, 15; 1Cor 8:11; 15:3; 2Cor 5:14, 15; Gal 2:21; Col 2:20; 1Th 4:14; 5:10; 2Tim 2:11). Paul realized that it was better to speak of what Yeshua did for us than what the Jewish rulers and the Romans did to him. do: Grk. poieō, pres. imp., 2p-pl., a verb of physical action that may refer to (1) producing something material; make, construct, produce, create; or (2) to be active in bringing about a state of condition; do, act, perform, work. The second meaning applies here. The present tense of the command stresses "start and keep on doing" the prescribed acts of "taking" and "eating." this: Grk. houtos. The pronoun refers to the physical consumption. As implied in the next verse the command applies to both the matza and the cup. By the present tense command "do this," Yeshua established a continuing obligation to repeat this ritual in the future. The obligation is repeated by Paul to the congregation in Corinth (1Cor 11:23-26). Obedience of the command is an acknowledgement of Yeshua's authority. Yeshua will say later in the evening "If you love me keep my commandments" (John 14:15). The obligation to perform this ritual is the origin of the term "sacrament," which is derived from the Latin sacramentum, a military oath of enlistment. Writers of the Latin Church, such as Tertullian, adopted sacramentum to denote those ordinances of religion by which Christians come under an obligation of obedience to God, and which obligation, they supposed, was equally sacred with that of an oath (McClintock). However, in medieval times the definition of sacrament was changed from an obligation to a manifestation of grace. The new definition was formalized at the Council of Trent (1551). The Lord's Supper was now labeled Eucharist and a sacrament became a visible sign of inner grace. In other words, the bread and cup become a vehicle in which God's actual presence abides and from which God may impart saving and sanctifying grace. In addition, the substance of the bread and wine are converted into the actual body and blood of Yeshua, the process being labeled transubstantiation. Evangelicalism has rejected the Catholic definition and define sacrament either as a "means of grace" or a "memorial of grace." The theology of sacrament adopted in later Christianity is not present in the apostolic narratives of the last supper. Yeshua's command "do this" likely intends two occasions of compliance. First, in future observances of Passover (as long as the temple stood) disciples should incorporate this ceremony of bread and cup into their Seder plan. Second, the command provides the basis for Paul's institution of the Lord's Supper (1Cor 11:23-29), which can be conducted in any location. In the future disciples would be able to share this special meal without having to go to Jerusalem to offer a Passover lamb. in: Grk. eis, prep. remembrance: Grk. anamnēsis, reminder, remembrance, memory, used here in an active and deliberate sense. of me: Grk. ho emos, an emphatic possessive pronoun for the first person; my, mine. The pronoun occurs often on the lips of Yeshua referring to what is connected directly to him. The pierced bread is a reminder of the sufferings Yeshua endured for our salvation. This clause, which Paul repeats in his instruction for the Lord's Supper (1Cor 11:24), reveals the purpose and nature of the ritual. Each piece of bread received by a disciple represented Yeshua. The spiritual meaning of sharing the bread is significant. ● Leaven symbolizes malice and wickedness, whereas matzah is likened to sincerity and truth (1Cor 5:6-8). Unleavened bread symbolizes a sinless Savior. Christian traditions that use leavened bread in the Lord's Supper essentially deny the purity of Yeshua. ● Considering the sinless nature of Yeshua and that the unleavened bread symbolizes this state, then "taking" the bread represents a desire that his purity would cleanse our sinfulness. ● The invitation to take the bread implies a willingness to identify with his death, as Paul says, "The bread that we break, is it not a sharing [Grk. koinonia] of the body of Messiah?" Yeshua had earlier commanded his disciples to take up their crosses and to die to self-will (Luke 9:23; 14:27; cf. Gal 5:24). Paul testified, "I have been crucified with Messiah" (Gal 2:20 BR). ● Sharing the bread together binds the community of faith, Jew and Gentile, in unity for which Yeshua prayed (John 17:11, 21-22), as Paul says, "Since there is one bread, we who are many are one body; for we all partake of the one bread" (1Cor 10:17). Because the bread represents Yeshua, then the "taking" and "eating" represent the obedient response of the trusting disciple. 20 And likewise the cup after which having eaten, saying, "This cup is the new covenant in my blood, which is being poured out for you. Reference: Exodus 24:8-11; Jeremiah 31:31-33; Matthew 26:27-28; Mark 14:23-24. And: Grk. kai, conj. likewise: Grk. hōsautōs, adv., in like manner, similarly, likewise. the cup: Grk. ho potērion. See verse 17 above. Presumptively this was the same cup used for the Kiddush after being refilled. after: Grk. meta, prep. See verse 11 above. which: Grk. ho, definite article, but used here as a demonstrative pronoun. having dined: Grk. deipneō, aor. inf., to dine, i.e. take the principle (or evening) meal. The verb is unique, occurring only four times in the Besekh (also Luke 17:8; 1Cor 11:25; Rev 3:20). The verb refers to consumption of the entire menu prepared for the Seder meal (verse 15 above). The first clause stresses that Yeshua followed the same procedure as depicted in verses 17-19 above. Luke omits the specific details mentioned in Matthew 26:27 that Yeshua gave his disciples the cup and commanded all of them to "drink" from it. saying: Grk. legō, pres. part. See verse 1 above. Yeshua now gives the meaning and significance of the third cup. This: Grk houtos, demonstrative pronoun. cup: Grk. ho potērion. This cup of wine is the third of the four required by the Mishnah (Pes. 10:6) and commonly referred to as the Cup of Redemption (Stern 144). Yeshua no doubt provided the customary Kiddush blessing over the wine. is the New: Grk. ho kainos, adj., means "new," either (1) of recent origin, or (2) different and superior in quality relative to something old. The second meaning applies here (cf. Heb 7:22; 8:6). In the LXX kainos translates Heb. chadashah, "new," first in Deut 20:5. Covenant: Grk. ho diathēkē, a formal arrangement for disposing of something in a manner assuring continuity. It refers to a covenant that either has a testamentary aspect, e.g., last will and testament or a perspective of God's unilaterally assumed obligation to confer a special blessing of favor. The term is used primarily of divine-initiated covenants. In the LXX diathēkē translates Heb. b'rit, pact, compact, or covenant (first in Gen 6:18) (DNTT 1:365). When used by God b'rit functions more as a sovereign proclamation of His will expressing special favor. The Jewish translators of the LXX might have chosen to use sunthēkē, which only means an agreement, but instead they chose uniformly to translate b'rit with diathēkē. The choice was deliberate because the divine-initiated covenants were not negotiated agreements. Moreover, diathēkē was chosen because the covenant was fundamentally about inheritance (cf. Gen 15:2-3, 18) (Zodhiates 425). The name hē kainē diathēkē translates Heb. B'rit Chadashah in Jeremiah 31:31 (LXX/MT). The New Covenant is the seventh divine-initiated covenant (after Adam, Noah, the Patriarchs, Israel, Aaron and David). For a detailed discussion of all the divine covenants see my web article The Everlasting Covenants. By mentioning the New Covenant Yeshua directly alludes to the prophecy of Jeremiah: "Behold, the days are coming, says ADONAI, and I will make with the house of Israel and with the house of Judah a new covenant. 32 Not according to the covenant that I made with their fathers in the day I took them by the hand to bring them out of the land of Egypt; because they broke my covenant, though I was a husband to them, says ADONAI. 33 But this is the covenant that I will make with the house of Israel after those days, says ADONAI: I will put my laws in their minds, and I will write it on their hearts, and I will be their God, and they will be my people. 34 And no more shall every man teach his neighbor and every man his brother, saying, 'Know ADONAI,' because all will know me, from the least of them to the greatest of them, says ADONAI; because I will forgive their iniquities, and their sins I will remember no more." (Jer 31:31-34 BR) The New Covenant is mentioned seven times in the Besekh and the apostle Paul, considered the preeminent theologian in Christianity, wrote at length about the New Covenant in Hebrews (8:8-13; 9:15 and 12:24). See my commentary on those passages. Paul reminds his readers that the beneficiaries of the New Covenant are Israel and Judah. A striking feature of Jeremiah's prophecy is the lack of any mention of Gentiles or Christians. Stern says, "Yeshua introduced the New Covenant not to a group of Gentiles (let alone to Christians — there weren't any), but to an exclusively Jewish company at a Passover Seder." (684) Of course, God's plan of salvation for the nations had already been announced by Isaiah (Isa 42:6; 49:6; 51:4; 60:3; cf. Acts 13:46-48). Gentiles enter the New Covenant by being "grafted in" to the Olive Tree of Israel (Rom 11:17–24) and being granted citizenship in the Commonwealth of Israel (Eph 2:11–16), which itself is based on the promise given to Jacob (Gen 35:11). Yeshua's inauguration of the New Covenant did not nullify the promised inheritance of the Land, because all of God's promises to Israel are "Yes" in him (2Cor 1:20; cf. Rom 9:4). To describe this covenant with kainos has two levels of meaning. For Jeremiah the New Covenant was "new," not because it canceled obedience of Torah commandments, but because of the promises of empowerment to keep those commandments (cf. Ezek 11:19-20; 36:26-27) and assurance of God's forgiveness of all sins, including capital crimes. For the apostles the New Covenant was "new" because of being enacted by Yeshua's atoning sacrifice, made practically effective by Yeshua's ascendant role as Mediator (Heb 8:6; 9:15; 12:24) and then empowered by the Holy Spirit on Shavuot (Pentecost) (Acts 1:8; 15:9; 2Cor 3:6). Thus, nothing of what Yeshua said implies that the New Covenant terminated the Old Covenant (cf. Matt 5:17-19). In software jargon the New Covenant could be considered an upgrade to the Old Covenant. Stern suggests the name could be rendered "Renewed Covenant." An important consideration for applying Yeshua's instruction to "do this in remembrance" in the wider Messianic community is that accepting the bread and cup bound the disciples to obeying the terms of the New Covenant. in: Grk. en, prep. my: Grk. egō, first person pronoun. blood: Grk. haima, blood, whether of animals or humans. Only that which has blood has life, since life or the soul (Heb. nephesh) is in the blood (Gen 9:4; Lev 17:11). Yeshua's use of "blood" is figurative for "bloodshed," and usually denoted a life given up in death as the penalty for breaking the covenant (Rienecker). which: Grk. ho, definite article, but used here as a demonstrative pronoun. is being poured out: Grk. ekcheō, pres. mid. part., to cause to come out in a stream, a portent of the release of blood and water from Yeshua's side as a result of being speared (John 19:34). The present tense emphasizes that from God's sovereign point of view the slaying had already occurred. for: Grk. huper, prep., lit. "on behalf of." See verse 19 above. you: Grk. humeis, pl. second person pronoun. Mark 14:24 has "poured out for many." Matthew 26:28 has "poured out for the forgiveness of sins." The phrase here does not specifically signify "substitutionary atonement" as commonly understood in Christianity (cf. Isa 53:4-5; 1Pet 2:24; 3:18). Although capital crimes were punishable by death, there is no provision in Torah requiring a man to die as atonement for his sin. Yeshua essentially predicted two things happening. First, the bloodshed was his own death by judicial fiat and crucifixion. Second, Yeshua's bloodshed served as a sin offering sacrifice (cf. John 1:29; Rom 8:3; 2Cor 5:21). Liefeld comments, "The new covenant (Jer 31:31-34) carried with it assurance of forgiveness through Jesus' blood shed on the cross and the inner work of the Holy Spirit in motivating us and enabling us to fulfill our covenantal responsibility. Stern notes that biblical covenants were always ratified by shed blood (cf. Gen 8:20–9:17, 15:7–21; Ex 24:3–8). The significance of Yeshua's words is vividly portrayed in the account of establishing the covenant with Israel by sprinkling sacrificial blood to make the people clean. "So Moses took the blood and sprinkled it on the people, and said, "Behold the blood of the covenant, which the LORD has made with you in accordance with all these words." 9 Then Moses went up with Aaron, Nadab and Abihu, and seventy of the elders of Israel, 10 and they saw the God of Israel; and under His feet there appeared to be a pavement of sapphire, as clear as the sky itself. 11 Yet He did not stretch out His hand against the nobles of the sons of Israel; and they saw God, and they ate and drank." (Ex 24:8-11) Note that in the Exodus passage the "blood of the covenant" is juxtaposed with a covenant supper in the presence of God. The blood accomplishes a different task than the blood on the doorposts in Egypt where the blood saved from death. On a different kind of post Yeshua's death accomplished an atoning sacrifice that would deliver from both the penalty and the power of sin. Thus, the apostles would later remind us, "without the shedding of blood there is no forgiveness" (Heb 9:22), and "the blood of His Son Yeshua purifies us from all sin" (1Jn 1:7 TLV). The shedding of blood also ratified the New Covenant, that is, put it into force. Paul defines this action as having "enacted" (Grk. nomotheteō) the New Covenant (Heb 8:6), meaning "given as legislation, made law, ordained by law." The CJB translates the verb as "has been given as Torah" to emphasize that the New Covenant is treated by God as possessing divine authority. Thus, Stern asserts that the apostolic canon has itself been given as Torah (687). Moreover, Paul asserts that the Body of Messiah is founded on "the apostles and prophets" (Eph 2:20), which means that just as the apostolic canon has authority, then the Tanakh (canon of the Hebrew prophets), must retain authority. Betrayal Announcement and Argument, 22:21-27 21 But behold, the hand of the one betraying me is with me on the table. Reference: Matthew 26:21; Mark 14:18. But: Grk. plēn, adv. at the beginning of a sentence, serving either to restrict, or to unfold and expand what has preceded; besides, but, rather, except, however, nevertheless, yet. behold: Grk. idou, aor. imp. See verse 10 above. the hand: Grk. ho cheir, the anatomical limb of the hand. of the one: Grk. ho, definite article but used here as a demonstrative pronoun. betraying: Grk. paradidōmi, pres. part. See verse 4 above. The present tense stresses action occurring simultaneous with the verb being spoken. me: Grk. egō, first person pronoun. is: The Greek text has no verb here, but all Bible versions insert "is," giving the impression that Judas was still present, even though he actually left early in the meal (cf. Matt 26:21-25; John 13:21-30). A more accurate verb would be "was." with: Grk. meta, prep. See verse 11 above. me: Grk. egō. Yeshua alludes to his sharing of the charoset with Judas (Matt 26:23). on: Grk. epi, prep. the table: Grk. ho trapeza, a surface on which something can be placed. In the Besekh trapeza is used of a dining table from which crumbs fall (Matt 15:27), a table for money transactions (Matt 21:12; Mark 11:15; Luke 19:23; John 2:12), and a table for the showbread in the tabernacle (Heb 9:2). So, it's reasonable to assume that a low wooden table was indeed used in the upper room. In the LXX trapeza translates Heb. shulchan, table whether for private or sacred use, first in Exodus 25:23 for the table built for holding the showbread. Santala suggests that each one of the group took his place in a circle around a cloth spread on the floor, leaning on their left arms with their legs outward from the circle (205). Against the view that the floor was the table, Kasdan states that Yeshua and the disciples stretched out on the floor with their heads facing a low table, thus enabling them to reach the food by hand (336). There was certainly no high table with chairs as depicted in Michelangelo's great painting of the Last Supper. The table would have been low to the floor appropriate for reclining. See a work of art here depicting reclining at a table for a meal. Edersheim also says the supper arrangement employed a low rectangle wooden table common to the East with the dinner guests on three sides and one end open for the food service. He cites the Talmud's description of the table position and layout: "In the Talmud (B.B. 57b) the table of the disciples of the sages is described as two parts covered with a cloth, the other third being left bare for the dishes to stand on. There is evidence that this part of the table was outside the circle of those who were ranged around it. … During the Paschal Supper, it was the custom to remove the table at one part of the service; or, if this be deemed a later arrangement, the dishes at least would be taken off and put on again. This would render it necessary that the end of the table should protrude beyond the line of guests who reclined around it. For, as already repeatedly stated, it was the custom to recline at table, lying on the left side and leaning on the left hand, the feet stretching back towards the ground, and each guest occupying a separate divan or pillow." (815)
Works Cited ABP: The Apostolic Bible Polyglot, trans. Charles Van Der Pool. The Apostolic Press, 2006. LXX-English Interlinear. Abbot-Smith: George Abbot-Smith, A Manual Greek Lexicon of the New Testament. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1922. Online. Ant.: Flavius Josephus (c. 37–100 A.D.), Antiquities of the Jews (Latin Antiquitates Judaicae). trans. William Whiston (1737). Online. BAG: Walter Bauer, A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature. trans. W.F. Arndt & F.W. Gingrich. The University of Chicago Press, 1957. BBMS: Henry Morris, Biblical Basis for Modern Science. Baker Book House, 1984. BCP: The Book of Common Prayer and Administration of the Sacraments and Other Rites and Ceremonies of the Church. The Seabury Press, 1979. Online. BDB: The New Brown, Driver, Briggs Hebrew and English Lexicon. London: Oxford University Press, 1907. Reprinted by Associated Publishers and Authors, Inc., 1981. Online at BibleHub.com. Danker: F.W. Danker, The Concise Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament. The University of Chicago Press, 2009. DM: H.E. Dana & Julius R. Mantey, A Manual Grammar of the Greek New Testament. The Macmillan Co., 1955. Davies: W.D. Davies, Paul and Rabbinic Judaism: Some Rabbinic Elements in Pauline Theology. rev. ed. Harper Torchbooks, 1967. DNTT: Dictionary of New Testament Theology, 3 Vols. Colin Brown, ed. Zondervan Publishing House, 1975. Dorotheus: Dorotheus (255-362), Bishop of Tyre, The Choosing of the Seventy Holy Apostles. Online. Edersheim: Alfred Edersheim (1825-1889), The Life and Times of Jesus the Messiah (1883). New Updated Edition. Hendrickson Publishers, Inc., 1993. Also online. Edersheim-Temple: Alfred Edersheim (1825-1889), The Temple: It's Ministry and Services (1874). New Updated Edition. Hendrickson Publishers, Inc., 1994. Online. Ellicott: Charles John Ellicott (1819–1905), Commentary for English Readers (1878). Online. Ellis: E. Earle Ellis, The Gospel of Luke. Rev. ed. William B. Eerdmans Pub. Co., 1981. [New Century Bible Commentary]. Exell: Joseph S. Exell (d. 1910), Luke, The Pulpit Commentary, Vol. 16. eds. Joseph Exell and H.DM. Spence. Hendrickson Pub., 1985. Online. Flusser: David Flusser, The Sage from Galilee: Rediscovering Jesus' Genius. 4th ed. William B. Eerdmans Pub. Co., 2007. Geldenhuys: Norval Geldenhuys, Commentary on the Gospel of St. Luke. William B. Eerdmans Pub. Co., 1951. (NICNT) Gill: John Gill (1697-1771), Exposition of the Entire Bible. Online. Gruber: Daniel Gruber, The Messianic Writings. Elijah Publishing, 2011. [Translation of the New Testament Majority Text and annotations by the author.] HELPS: Gleason L. Archer and Gary Hill, eds., The Discovery Bible New Testament: HELPS Word Studies. Moody Press, 1987, 2011. (Online at BibleHub.com) Hippolytus: Hippolytus of Rome (170-236), On the Seventy Apostles. Online. Jeremias: Joachim Jeremias, Jerusalem in the Time of Jesus. Fortress Press, 1975. Ladd: George E. Ladd, A Commentary on the Revelation of John. William B. Eerdmans Publishing Co., 1972. Lane: William L. Lane, The Gospel According to Mark. William B. Eerdmans Pub. Co., 1974. (NICNT) Liefeld: Walter L. Liefeld, Luke. Vol. 8, Expositor's Bible Commentary, Software version 2.6. Zondervan Corp, 1989-1999. Lightfoot: John Lightfoot (1602-1675), Hebrew and Talmudical Exercitations upon Luke, A Commentary on the New Testament from the Talmud and Hebraica (1859 ed.), Vol. 3. Hendrickson Pub., 1989. Online. LSJ: Henry George Liddell and Robert Scott, An Intermediate Greek-English Lexicon (1889). rev. by Sir Henry Stuart Jones. Clarendon Press, 1940. Online. Lumby: J. Rawson Lumby (1831–1895), Luke, The Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges. Cambridge University Press, 1891. Online. Manual: Church of the Nazarene Manual, 2023. Nazarene Publishing House, 2024. Online. Metzger: Bruce Metzger, A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament. 2nd ed. United Bible Societies, 1994. McClintock: John McClintock & James Strong, Cyclopedia of Biblical, Theological and Ecclesiastical Literature. Harper & Brothers, 1880. Online. Mounce: William D. Mounce, Mounce Concise Greek-English Dictionary of the New Testament. 2011. Online. NIBD: Nelson's Illustrated Dictionary of the Bible. Herbert Lockyer, ed. Thomas Nelson Publishers, 1986. Plummer: Alfred Plummer (1841-1926), A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel According to S. Luke. 5th edition. T&T Clark, 1922. Online. Rienecker: Fritz Rienecker, A Linguistic Key to the Greek New Testament. 2 vol. Zondervan Pub. House, 1980. Robertson: Archibald Thomas Robertson, Word Pictures in the New Testament, 6 Vols. Nashville: Broadman Press, 1933. (Parsons CD-ROM Version 2.0, 1997) Online. Schaff: Philip Schaff, The History of the Christian Church. 8 vols. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1910. Online. Stern: David Stern, Jewish New Testament Commentary, Jewish New Testament Publications, 1996. Tarn & Griffith: Sir William Tarn and G.T. Griffith, Hellenistic Civilization. 3rd Edition. Edward Arnold Publishers, Ltd., 1952. TDSS: The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation. Rev. ed. Trans. Michael Wise, Martin Abegg Jr. and Edward Cook. HarperOne, 2005. Thayer: Joseph Henry Thayer (1828-1901), Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament (1889). Hendrickson Publishers, 2003. Online. Tverberg: Lois Tverberg & Bruce Okkema, Listening to the Language of the Bible. En-Gedi Resource Center, 2006. TWOT: R. Laird Harris, ed., Theological Wordbook of the Old Testament. 2 vols. Moody Press, 1980. Vincent: Marvin R. Vincent (1834-1922), The Word Studies in the New Testament. 4 vols. Hendrickson Pub., 1886. Online. Wars: Flavius Josephus (Yosef ben Matityahu; c. 75-99 A.D.), Wars of the Jews. trans. William Whiston (1737). Online. Young: Brad H. Young, Jesus: The Jewish Theologian. Hendrickson Pub., 1995. Zodhiates: Spiros Zodhiates (1922-2009), ed. The Complete Word Study Dictionary: New Testament. AMG Publishers, 1992, 1993. Copyright © 2026 Blaine Robison. All rights reserved. |
